{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,3]],"date-time":"2026-06-03T01:54:38Z","timestamp":1780451678408,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,2]],"date-time":"2019-10-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1569974400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"This study was funded by the Department of Agriculture, Environment and Rural Affairs (DAERA) and formed part of G. Scoley\u2019s PhD project which was co-funded by AgriSearch.","award":["N\/A"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["N\/A"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Animals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study aimed to examine the use of non-invasive monitoring technologies as a means of capturing behavioural, physiological and health responses of calves allocated to different nutritional regimes. Seventy-four Holstein Friesian calves were individually penned and allocated to receive either high (HML) or conventional (CML) milk replacer (MR) levels between 5\u201370 days of age. Additionally calves were allocated to one of four forage treatments: (i) chopped straw offered between 14\u201370 days of age (CS14), (ii) chopped straw offered between 56\u201370 days of age (CS56), (iii) grass silage offered between 56\u201370 days of age (GS56), and (iv) no forage in the pre-wean period (NF). A representative sample of calves from each treatment were fitted with activity sensors and heart rate monitors throughout the experimental period to examine lying behaviour and heart rate variability, respectively. Thermal images of the eye and rectal area of each calf were taken 5 days\/week between 5\u201377 days of age. Faecal and respiratory scoring of each individual calf was carried out on a daily basis throughout the experimental period. Milk replacer feeding level had limited effects on measures of calf health, although HML calves tended to have an increased likelihood for receiving treatment for scour than CML calves. Daily lying time (min\/d) was lower in HML calves following reduction in MR feeding frequency at 43 days of age and weaning at 71 days of age when compared with CML calves. Additionally, HML calves displayed a lower heart rate variability following weaning, this suggestive of increased stress load. There were limited effects of forage treatment, however, CS14 calves displayed a greater daily lying time following MR step-down at 68 days of age, this potentially indicating increased rumination. Results of the present study highlight the benefits of using remote monitoring technologies as a means of detecting behavioural and physiological changes as a result of nutritional management strategy in individually housed dairy calves.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ani9100760","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,2]],"date-time":"2019-10-02T08:17:54Z","timestamp":1570004274000},"page":"760","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Using Non-Invasive Monitoring Technologies to Capture Behavioural, Physiological and Health Responses of Dairy Calves to Different Nutritional Regimes during the First Ten Weeks of Life"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Gillian","family":"Scoley","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Agri-Food and Biosciences Institute, Hillsborough BT26 6DR, Northern Ireland, UK"},{"name":"Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen\u2019s University Belfast, Belfast BT7 1NN, Northern Ireland, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alan","family":"Gordon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Agri-Food and Biosciences Institute, Newforge Lane, Belfast BT9 5PX, Northern Ireland, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Steven","family":"Morrison","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Agri-Food and Biosciences Institute, Hillsborough BT26 6DR, Northern Ireland, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"783","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2011-4391","article-title":"Preweaning milk replacer intake and effects on long-term productivity of dairy calves","volume":"95","author":"Soberon","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3352","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.S0022-0302(02)74423-8","article-title":"Feed intake patterns, growth performance, and metabolic and endocrine traits in calves fed unlimited amounts of colostrum and milk by automate, starting in the neonatal period","volume":"85","author":"Hammon","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4101","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2009-2326","article-title":"Invited review: The welfare of dairy cattle--key concepts and the role of science","volume":"92","author":"Rushen","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1016\/j.livsci.2013.12.022","article-title":"Effects of milk feeding volume and frequency on body weight and health of dairy heifer calves","volume":"161","author":"Conneely","year":"2014","journal-title":"Livest. Sci."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"799","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2008-1470","article-title":"Impact of conventional or intensive milk replacer programs on Holstein heifer performance through six months of age and during first lactation","volume":"92","author":"Hayes","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3054","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.S0022-0302(02)74391-9","article-title":"Effects of ad libitum milk intake on dairy calves","volume":"85","author":"Jasper","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1016\/j.livsci.2006.10.001","article-title":"Effect of level of milk replacer fed to Holstein calves on performance during the preweaning period and starter digestibility at weaning","volume":"110","author":"Devant","year":"2007","journal-title":"Livest. Sci."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2009-2427","article-title":"Duration of weaning, starter intake, and weight gain of dairy calves fed large amounts of milk","volume":"93","author":"Sweeney","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1401","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2010-3441","article-title":"Weaning age of calves fed a high milk allowance by automated feeders: Effects on feed, water, and energy intake, behavioral signs of hunger, and weight gains","volume":"94","author":"Borderas","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1136","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2016-11561","article-title":"Effects of forage provision to dairy calves on growth performance and rumen fermentation: A meta-analysis and meta-regression","volume":"100","author":"Imani","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2011-4405","article-title":"Effect of different forage sources on performance and feeding behavior of Holstein calves","volume":"95","author":"Castells","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3547","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2010-3871","article-title":"Hay intake improves performance and rumen development of calves fed higher quantities of milk","volume":"94","author":"Khan","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2015-9997","article-title":"Effect of feed type and method of presentation on feeding behavior, intake, and growth of dairy calves fed a high level of milk","volume":"99","author":"Overvest","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3592","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.S0022-0302(03)73965-4","article-title":"Composition and Functional Capacity of Blood Mononuclear Leukocyte Populations from Neonatal Calves on Standard and Intensified Milk Replacer Diets","volume":"86","author":"Nonnecke","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022029909004142","article-title":"Long-term effects on heifer performance of an enhanced-growth feeding programme applied during the preweaning period","volume":"76","author":"Terre","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Dairy Res."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"876","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.S0022-0302(07)71571-0","article-title":"Pre- and postweaning performance of Holstein female calves fed milk through step-down and conventional methods","volume":"90","author":"Khan","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.S0022-0302(06)72085-9","article-title":"Effects of additional milk replacer feeding on calf health, growth, and selected blood metabolites in calves","volume":"89","author":"Quigley","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2828","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.S0022-0302(05)72963-5","article-title":"A prospective study of calf factors affecting age, body size, and body condition score at first calving of Holstein dairy heifers","volume":"88","author":"Heinrichs","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1111\/asj.12019","article-title":"Newborn calf welfare: A review focusing on mortality rates","volume":"84","author":"Uetake","year":"2013","journal-title":"Anim. Sci. J."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3376","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2007-0104","article-title":"Structural growth, rumen development, and metabolic and immune responses of Holstein male calves fed milk through step-down and conventional methods","volume":"90","author":"Khan","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.applanim.2013.04.020","article-title":"Behavioral and physiological responses of heifer calves to acute stressors: Long-term consistency and relationship with adult reactivity to milking","volume":"147","author":"Heutinck","year":"2013","journal-title":"Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peli, A., Grandis, A., Tassinari, M., Famigli Bergamini, P., Tagliavia, C., Roccaro, M., and Bomnardi, C. (2019). Environment and Behavior: Neurochemical effects of different diets in the calf brain. Animals, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani9060358"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cvfa.2012.11.011","article-title":"Remote Noninvasive Assessment of Pain and Health Status in Cattle","volume":"29","author":"Theurer","year":"2013","journal-title":"Vet. Clin. N. Am. Food Anim. Pract."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.7120\/09627286.21.3.339","article-title":"Automated monitoring of behavioral-based animal welfare indicators","volume":"21","author":"Rushen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Anim. Welf."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1016\/0009-8981(70)90390-6","article-title":"A turbidity test for estimation of immune globulin levels in neonatal calf serum","volume":"27","author":"McEwan","year":"1970","journal-title":"Clin. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1017\/S1466252314000267","article-title":"Timely diagnosis of dairy calf respiratory disease using a standardized scoring system","volume":"15","author":"McGuirk","year":"2014","journal-title":"Anim. Health Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"789","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physbeh.2007.11.044","article-title":"Eye temperature and heart rate variability of calves disbudded with or without local anaesthetic","volume":"93","author":"Stewart","year":"2008","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.applanim.2007.08.004","article-title":"Weaning distress in dairy calves: Effects of alternative weaning procedures","volume":"112","author":"Budzynska","year":"2008","journal-title":"Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3265","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2012-6003","article-title":"Technical note: Evaluation of data loggers for measuring lying behavior in dairy calves","volume":"96","author":"Bonk","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1016\/j.livsci.2018.05.014","article-title":"Validating the IceRobotics IceQube tri-axial accelerometer for measuring daily lying duration in dairy calves","volume":"214","author":"Finney","year":"2018","journal-title":"Livest. Sci."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1289","DOI":"10.1071\/AN14093","article-title":"Heart rate variability: A biomarker of dairy calf welfare","volume":"55","author":"Clapp","year":"2014","journal-title":"Anim. Prod. Sci."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"(1996). Heart rate variability: Standards of measurement, physiological interpretation and clinical use. Task Force of the European Society of Cardiology and the North American Society of Pacing and Electrophysiology. Circulation, 93, 1043\u20131065."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1161","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-011-0107-7","article-title":"ARTiiFACT: A tool for heart rate artifact processing and heart rate variability analysis","volume":"43","author":"Kaufmann","year":"2011","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Methods"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1512","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2008-1578","article-title":"Effects of local anesthetic and a nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drug on pain responses of dairy calves to hot-iron dehorning","volume":"92","author":"Stewart","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physbeh.2007.01.007","article-title":"Heart rate variability as a measure of autonomic regulation of cardiac activity for assessing stress and welfare in farm animals\u2014A review","volume":"92","author":"Langbein","year":"2007","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1016\/j.applanim.2014.10.002","article-title":"Associations between milk intake and activity in the first days of a calf\u2019s life and later growth and health","volume":"175","author":"Rabeyrin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.1016\/j.applanim.2007.03.006","article-title":"Behavioral indicators of hunger in dairy calves","volume":"109","author":"Guesdon","year":"2008","journal-title":"Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"316","DOI":"10.1017\/S1751731113002140","article-title":"Welfare implication of measuring heart rate and heart rate variability in dairy cattle: Literature review and conclusions for future research","volume":"8","author":"Kovacs","year":"2014","journal-title":"Animal"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1016\/S0031-9384(01)00651-5","article-title":"Heart rate variability\u2014A noninvasive approach to measure stress in calves and cows","volume":"75","author":"Mohr","year":"2002","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2013.10.019","article-title":"Factors associated with morbidity, mortality, and growth of dairy heifer calves up to 3 months of age","volume":"113","author":"Windeyer","year":"2014","journal-title":"Prev. Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"1","article-title":"Calf health from birth to weaning. I. General aspects of disease prevention","volume":"64","author":"Lorenz","year":"2011","journal-title":"Irish Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1135","DOI":"10.1017\/S1751731108002322","article-title":"Factors influencing heifer survival and fertility on commercial dairy farms","volume":"2","author":"Wathes","year":"2008","journal-title":"Animal"},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Garnsworthy, P.C. (2005). Early growth effects on subsequent health and performance of dairy heifers. Calf and Heifer Rearing, Nottingham University Press."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"830","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.S0022-0302(01)74541-9","article-title":"Composition of growth of Holstein calves fed milk replacer from birth to 105-kg body weight","volume":"84","author":"Diaz","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-5877(03)00046-1","article-title":"Morbidity in Swedish dairy calves from birth to 90 days of age and individual calf-level risk factors for infectious diseases","volume":"58","author":"Svensson","year":"2003","journal-title":"Prev. Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3199","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2015-10198","article-title":"Stress, immunity, and the management of calves","volume":"99","author":"Hulbert","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.104197","article-title":"Assessing the effects of weekly preweaning health scores on dairy calf mortality and productivity parameters: Cohort study","volume":"181","author":"Mahendran","year":"2017","journal-title":"Vet. Rec."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compag.2016.01.027","article-title":"Infrared thermography in animal production: An overview","volume":"123","author":"McManus","year":"2016","journal-title":"Comput. Electron. Agric."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1017\/S096272860002964X","article-title":"Infrared thermography as a non-invasive tool to study animal welfare","volume":"14","author":"Stewart","year":"2005","journal-title":"Anim. Welf."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.4141\/A02-104","article-title":"Early detection and prediction of infection using infrared thermography","volume":"84","author":"Schaefer","year":"2004","journal-title":"Can. J. Anim. Sci."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1079\/BJN19620021","article-title":"The metabolism and thermal regulation of calves in the first month of life","volume":"16","author":"Blaxter","year":"1962","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"885","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2015-9975","article-title":"Invited review: Transitioning from milk to solid feed in dairy heifers","volume":"99","author":"Khan","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2438","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2015-9901","article-title":"Invited review: Influence of climatic conditions on the development, performance, and health of calves","volume":"99","author":"Roland","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_54","first-page":"63","article-title":"Mapping the body surface temperature of cattle by infrared thermography","volume":"62","author":"Salles","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Biol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9925","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2015-10770","article-title":"Technical note: Preliminary evaluation of an automated indwelling rumen temperature bolus measurement system to detect pyrexia in preweaned dairy calves","volume":"99","author":"Knauer","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1017\/S1751731114002481","article-title":"Infrared thermography detects febrile and behavioral responses to vaccination of weaned piglets","volume":"9","author":"Cook","year":"2015","journal-title":"Animal"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"928","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rvsc.2011.09.021","article-title":"The non-invasive and automated detection of bovine respiratory disease onset in receiver calves using infrared thermography","volume":"93","author":"Schaefer","year":"2012","journal-title":"Res. Vet. Sci."}],"container-title":["Animals"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2615\/9\/10\/760\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T13:27:03Z","timestamp":1760189223000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2615\/9\/10\/760"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,2]]},"references-count":57,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,10]]}},"alternative-id":["ani9100760"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ani9100760","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-2615"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-2615","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,2]]}}}