{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,8]],"date-time":"2026-10-08T22:32:59Z","timestamp":1791498779125,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":196,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,6]],"date-time":"2026-02-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1770336000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Antibodies"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The transplacental transfer of maternal immunoglobulin G from the mother to the foetus is central for providing immunity in early life, resulting in full-term newborns having IgG repertoires and levels similar to those of their mothers. The neonatal Fc receptor is recognised as the primary transporter of IgGs across the placental epithelium. Understanding the mechanisms of transplacental antibody transfer and factors that affect them is essential in optimising maternal vaccination strategies, ultimately protecting infants from various environmental pathogens. This review first outlines the biological mechanisms governing transplacental IgG transfer, followed by a discussion of how this process may be disrupted by physiological and pathological conditions during pregnancy, including preterm birth, hypergammaglobulinemia, maternal pathogenic IgG, maternal infections, hyperglycaemia, and exposure to biological therapies. We also summarise currently available models used to study transplacental IgG transfer, highlighting existing knowledge gaps and future directions for research in this field.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/antib15010014","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,9]],"date-time":"2026-02-09T08:15:54Z","timestamp":1770624954000},"page":"14","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Transplacental Antibody Transfer: Mechanisms, Pregnancy-Related Disruptions, and Emerging Experimental Models"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Qiqi","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Metabolism, Digestion and Reproduction, Imperial College London, 369 Fulham Road, London SW10 9NH, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhengyuan","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Metabolism, Digestion and Reproduction, Imperial College London, 369 Fulham Road, London SW10 9NH, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zainab","family":"Saeed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Metabolism, Digestion and Reproduction, Imperial College London, 369 Fulham Road, London SW10 9NH, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4940-0828","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Orene","family":"Greer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Metabolism, Digestion and Reproduction, Imperial College London, 369 Fulham Road, London SW10 9NH, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"James A.","family":"Harker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, Du Cane Road, London W12 0NN, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5694-9915","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nishel M.","family":"Shah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Metabolism, Digestion and Reproduction, Imperial College London, 369 Fulham Road, London SW10 9NH, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1086\/515122","article-title":"Maternal immunization","volume":"28","author":"Glezen","year":"1999","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barrau, M., Roblin, X., Andromaque, L., Rozieres, A., Faure, M., Paul, S., and Nancey, S. (2023). What Should We Know about Drug Levels and Therapeutic Drug Monitoring during Pregnancy and Breastfeeding in Inflammatory Bowel Disease under Biologic Therapy?. J. Clin. Med., 12.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202310.0116.v1"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0897.1996.tb00172.x","article-title":"Evolution of maternofetal transport of immunoglobulins during human pregnancy","volume":"36","author":"Malek","year":"1996","journal-title":"Am. J. Reprod. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Clements, T., Rice, T.F., Vamvakas, G., Barnett, S., Barnes, M., Donaldson, B., Jones, C.E., Kampmann, B., and Holder, B. (2020). Update on Transplacental Transfer of IgG Subclasses: Impact of Maternal and Fetal Factors. Front. Immunol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.01920"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"650","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2022.02.005","article-title":"Secretory IgA: Linking microbes, maternal health, and infant health through human milk","volume":"30","author":"Donald","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Albrecht, M., and Arck, P.C. (2020). Vertically Transferred Immunity in Neonates: Mothers, Mechanisms and Mediators. Front. Immunol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.00555"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ciobanu, A.M., Dumitru, A.E., Gica, N., Botezatu, R., Peltecu, G., and Panaitescu, A.M. (2020). Benefits and Risks of IgG Transplacental Transfer. Diagnostics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics10080583"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/S0301-2115(00)00423-1","article-title":"Development of the placental villous tree and its consequences for fetal growth","volume":"92","author":"Kingdom","year":"2000","journal-title":"Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.3109\/10408444.2011.653487","article-title":"The placenta, transfer of immunoglobulins, and safety assessment of biopharmaceuticals in pregnancy","volume":"42","author":"DeSesso","year":"2012","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"715","DOI":"10.1038\/nri2155","article-title":"FcRn: The neonatal Fc receptor comes of age","volume":"7","author":"Roopenian","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2019.05.044","article-title":"Fc Glycan-Mediated Regulation of Placental Antibody Transfer","volume":"178","author":"Jennewein","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12943","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2004325117","article-title":"FcRn, but not Fc\u03b3Rs, drives maternal-fetal transplacental transport of human IgG antibodies","volume":"117","author":"Borghi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18709","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0606304103","article-title":"Divergent activities of an engineered antibody in murine and human systems have implications for therapeutic antibodies","volume":"103","author":"Vaccaro","year":"2006","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"993","DOI":"10.1093\/intimm\/13.8.993","article-title":"The MHC class I-related receptor, FcRn, plays an essential role in the maternofetal transfer of gamma-globulin in humans","volume":"13","author":"Firan","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2019.05.046","article-title":"Fc Characteristics Mediate Selective Placental Transfer of IgG in HIV-Infected Women","volume":"178","author":"Martinez","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1007\/s10719-012-9381-6","article-title":"Comparison of the Fc glycosylation of fetal and maternal immunoglobulin G","volume":"30","author":"Einarsdottir","year":"2013","journal-title":"Glycoconj. J."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1174","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2012-12-473843","article-title":"Maternofetal transplacental transport of recombinant IgG antibodies lacking effector functions","volume":"122","author":"Mathiesen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1273","DOI":"10.3892\/ijmm.2015.2141","article-title":"Fc gamma receptor IIb participates in maternal IgG trafficking of human placental endothelial cells","volume":"35","author":"Ishikawa","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20200359","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20200359","article-title":"FcRn is a CD32a coreceptor that determines susceptibility to IgG immune complex-driven autoimmunity","volume":"217","author":"Hubbard","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2005.09.013","article-title":"Cell surface recycling of internalized antigen permits dendritic cell priming of B cells","volume":"23","author":"Bergtold","year":"2005","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4981","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1202017","article-title":"Fc\u03b3RIIb on liver sinusoidal endothelium clears small immune complexes","volume":"189","author":"Ganesan","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-022-00821-1","article-title":"The therapeutic age of the neonatal Fc receptor","volume":"23","author":"Pyzik","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1016\/j.placenta.2006.01.024","article-title":"Endothelial expression of Fc gamma receptor IIb in the full-term human placenta","volume":"28","author":"Mishima","year":"2007","journal-title":"Placenta"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2331","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.175.4.2331","article-title":"A novel Fc gamma R-defined, IgG-containing organelle in placental endothelium","volume":"175","author":"Takizawa","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"605","DOI":"10.1007\/s00281-017-0653-x","article-title":"Transfer of maternal immunity and programming of the newborn immune system","volume":"39","author":"Jennewein","year":"2017","journal-title":"Semin. Immunopathol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1186\/1742-4690-10-103","article-title":"The role of neutralizing antibodies in prevention of HIV-1 infection: What can we learn from the mother-to-child transmission context?","volume":"10","author":"Braibant","year":"2013","journal-title":"Retrovirology"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/161.3.487","article-title":"Natural history of pertussis antibody in the infant and effect on vaccine response","volume":"161","author":"Decker","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.4049\/immunohorizons.1700057","article-title":"The Impact of IgG transplacental transfer on early life immunity","volume":"2","author":"Fouda","year":"2018","journal-title":"Immunohorizons"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clp.2024.10.007","article-title":"Transplacental Antibodies: Role of Maternal Vaccines and Immunity","volume":"52","author":"Medoro","year":"2025","journal-title":"Clin. Perinatol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-022-00703-6","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 infection and COVID-19 vaccination in pregnancy","volume":"22","author":"Male","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"660","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2022.04.007","article-title":"Maternal immune protection against infectious diseases","volume":"30","author":"Langel","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dekkers, G., Treffers, L., Plomp, R., Bentlage, A.E.H., de Boer, M., Koeleman, C.A.M., Lissenberg-Thunnissen, S.N., Visser, R., Brouwer, M., and Mok, J.Y. (2017). Decoding the Human Immunoglobulin G-Glycan Repertoire Reveals a Spectrum of Fc-Receptor- and Complement-Mediated-Effector Activities. Front. Immunol., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2017.00877"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Martinez, D.R., Fouda, G.G., Peng, X., Ackerman, M.E., and Permar, S.R. (2018). Noncanonical placental Fc receptors: What is their role in modulating transplacental transfer of maternal IgG?. PLoS Pathog., 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1007161"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1802135","DOI":"10.1080\/19420862.2020.1802135","article-title":"Antigen physiochemical properties allosterically effect the IgG Fc-region and Fc neonatal receptor affinity","volume":"12","author":"Sun","year":"2020","journal-title":"mAbs"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vidarsson, G., Dekkers, G., and Rispens, T. (2014). IgG subclasses and allotypes: From structure to effector functions. Front. Immunol., 5.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2014.00520"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7812","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M113.537563","article-title":"Structural insights into neonatal Fc receptor-based recycling mechanisms","volume":"289","author":"Oganesyan","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"867","DOI":"10.1016\/S1097-2765(01)00230-1","article-title":"Crystal structure at 2.8 A of an FcRn\/heterodimeric Fc complex: Mechanism of pH-dependent binding","volume":"7","author":"Martin","year":"2001","journal-title":"Mol. Cell"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14649","DOI":"10.1021\/bi00045a005","article-title":"Analysis of the pH dependence of the neonatal Fc receptor\/immunoglobulin G interaction using antibody and receptor variants","volume":"34","author":"Raghavan","year":"1995","journal-title":"Biochemistry"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2819","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1521-4141(199909)29:09<2819::AID-IMMU2819>3.0.CO;2-6","article-title":"Mapping the site on human IgG for binding of the MHC class I-related receptor, FcRn","volume":"29","author":"Kim","year":"1999","journal-title":"Eur. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1968","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.0903296","article-title":"Importance of neonatal FcR in regulating the serum half-life of therapeutic proteins containing the Fc domain of human IgG1: A comparative study of the affinity of monoclonal antibodies and Fc-fusion proteins to human neonatal FcR","volume":"184","author":"Suzuki","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1244","DOI":"10.1038\/s41590-023-01544-8","article-title":"Effect of posttranslational modifications and subclass on IgG activity: From immunity to immunotherapy","volume":"24","author":"Nimmerjahn","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1878","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molimm.2009.02.002","article-title":"Impact of methionine oxidation on the binding of human IgG1 to Fc Rn and Fc gamma receptors","volume":"46","author":"Wang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1038\/nrd2804","article-title":"Glycosylation as a strategy to improve antibody-based therapeutics","volume":"8","author":"Jefferis","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Drug Discov."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"833","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1418812112","article-title":"Structure of Fc\u03b3RI in complex with Fc reveals the importance of glycan recognition for high-affinity IgG binding","volume":"112","author":"Lu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1573","DOI":"10.1016\/j.str.2015.06.015","article-title":"The Structural Role of Antibody N-Glycosylation in Receptor Interactions","volume":"23","author":"Subedi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Structure"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1074\/mcp.M114.042044","article-title":"Investigating the interaction between the neonatal Fc receptor and monoclonal antibody variants by hydrogen\/deuterium exchange mass spectrometry","volume":"14","author":"Jensen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mol. Cell. Proteom."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1716","DOI":"10.1074\/mcp.M900540-MCP200","article-title":"Post-translational modifications differentially affect IgG1 conformation and receptor binding","volume":"9","author":"Houde","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mol. Cell. Proteom."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jim.2012.05.022","article-title":"Quantitative glycan profiling of normal human plasma derived immunoglobulin and its fragments Fab and Fc","volume":"382","author":"Anumula","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Immunol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"669","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbagen.2005.11.021","article-title":"Differential glycosylation of polyclonal IgG, IgG-Fc and IgG-Fab isolated from the sera of patients with ANCA-associated systemic vasculitis","volume":"1760","author":"Holland","year":"2006","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1016\/0165-0378(91)90029-P","article-title":"IgG asymmetric molecules with antipaternal activity isolated from sera and placenta of pregnant human","volume":"20","author":"Gentile","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Reprod. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.2200438","article-title":"IgG Fab Glycans Hinder FcRn-Mediated Placental Transport","volume":"210","author":"Volkov","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.4161\/mabs.1.4.9122","article-title":"Human immunoglobulin allotypes: Possible implications for immunogenicity","volume":"1","author":"Jefferis","year":"2009","journal-title":"mAbs"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"860","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molimm.2010.12.009","article-title":"Impact of methionine oxidation in human IgG1 Fc on serum half-life of monoclonal antibodies","volume":"48","author":"Wang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1469","DOI":"10.1124\/dmd.111.039453","article-title":"Monoclonal antibodies with identical Fc sequences can bind to FcRn differentially with pharmacokinetic consequences","volume":"39","author":"Wang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Drug Metab. Dispos."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"576","DOI":"10.4161\/mabs.24981","article-title":"Analytical FcRn affinity chromatography for functional characterization of monoclonal antibodies","volume":"5","author":"Schlothauer","year":"2013","journal-title":"mAbs"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2999","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.179.5.2999","article-title":"NF-kappaB signaling regulates functional expression of the MHC class I-related neonatal Fc receptor for IgG via intronic binding sequences","volume":"179","author":"Liu","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qian, S., Li, C., Liu, X., Jia, X., Xiao, Y., and Li, Z. (2021). Activation of the JNK\/MAPK Signaling Pathway by TGF-\u03b21 Enhances Neonatal Fc Receptor Expression and IgG Transcytosis. Microorganisms, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms9040879"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32154","DOI":"10.1038\/srep32154","article-title":"TGEV infection up-regulates FcRn expression via activation of NF-\u03baB signaling","volume":"6","author":"Guo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaav3208","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.aav3208","article-title":"Maternal immunity and antibodies to dengue virus promote infection and Zika virus-induced microcephaly in fetuses","volume":"5","author":"Rathore","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.181.1.449","article-title":"Activation of the JAK\/STAT-1 signaling pathway by IFN-gamma can down-regulate functional expression of the MHC class I-related neonatal Fc receptor for IgG","volume":"181","author":"Liu","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12972","DOI":"10.1111\/aji.12972","article-title":"Expression of FcRn receptor in placental tissue and its relationship with IgG levels in term and preterm newborns","volume":"80","author":"Lozano","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Reprod. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"627","DOI":"10.1086\/322808","article-title":"The influence of placental malaria infection and maternal hypergammaglobulinemia on transplacental transfer of antibodies and IgG subclasses in a rural West African population","volume":"184","author":"Okoko","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4734","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2018.05.117","article-title":"Declining responsiveness to influenza vaccination with progression of human pregnancy","volume":"36","author":"Schlaudecker","year":"2018","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"985646","DOI":"10.1155\/2012\/985646","article-title":"IgG placental transfer in healthy and pathological pregnancies","volume":"2012","author":"Palmeira","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin. Dev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wilcox, C.R., Holder, B., and Jones, C.E. (2017). Factors Affecting the FcRn-Mediated Transplacental Transfer of Antibodies and Implications for Vaccination in Pregnancy. Front. Immunol., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2017.01294"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"576","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2011.100","article-title":"Maternal HIV infection and antibody responses against vaccine-preventable diseases in uninfected infants","volume":"305","author":"Jones","year":"2011","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1500","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM200005183422007","article-title":"Intrauterine infection and preterm delivery","volume":"342","author":"Goldenberg","year":"2000","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"van den Berg, J.P., Westerbeek, E.A., Smits, G.P., van der Klis, F.R., Berbers, G.A., and van Elburg, R.M. (2014). Lower transplacental antibody transport for measles, mumps, rubella and varicella zoster in very preterm infants. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0094714"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e199","DOI":"10.1097\/INF.0000000000002364","article-title":"Hypergammaglobulinemia and Impaired Transplacental Transfer of Respiratory Syncytial Virus Antibody in Papua New Guinea","volume":"38","author":"Atwell","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciac793","article-title":"Maternal Antibody Response and Transplacental Transfer Following Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Infection or Vaccination in Pregnancy","volume":"76","author":"Otero","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"755","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-8587(23)00190-0","article-title":"Maternal type 1 diabetes and relative protection against offspring transmission","volume":"11","author":"Allen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"554.e1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2024.10.053","article-title":"Enhanced placental antibody transfer efficiency with longer interval between maternal respiratory syncytial virus vaccination and birth","volume":"232","author":"Jasset","year":"2024","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jasset, M.O.J., Andrea Lopez Zapana, P., Bahadir, Z., Shook, L., Dennis, M.M., Gilbert, M.E., Liu, M.Z.A., Yinger, M.R.V., Bald, M.C., and Bradford, M.C.G. (2024). Longer interval between maternal RSV vaccination and birth increases placental transfer efficiency. medRxiv.","DOI":"10.1101\/2024.07.14.24310390"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ofae314","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofae314","article-title":"Transfer of Respiratory Syncytial Virus Prefusion F Protein Antibody in Low Birthweight Infants","volume":"11","author":"Kachikis","year":"2024","journal-title":"Open Forum Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3297","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.humrep.a135906","article-title":"Materno-fetal immunoglobulin transfer and passive immunity during the first trimester of human pregnancy","volume":"10","author":"Jauniaux","year":"1995","journal-title":"Hum. Reprod."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1574-695X.2011.00807.x","article-title":"Preterm and term neonates transplacentally acquire IgG antibodies specific to LPS from Klebsiella pneumoniae, Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa","volume":"62","author":"Krebs","year":"2011","journal-title":"FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3365","DOI":"10.1016\/S0264-410X(03)00334-7","article-title":"Placental transport of immunoglobulin G","volume":"21","author":"Simister","year":"2003","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1070","DOI":"10.1038\/2101070a0","article-title":"Elevation of cord over maternal IgG immunoglobulin: Evidence for an active placental IgG transport","volume":"210","author":"Kohler","year":"1966","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"801","DOI":"10.1097\/INF.0b013e3181dc4f77","article-title":"Transplacental transport of IgG antibodies specific for pertussis, diphtheria, tetanus, haemophilus influenzae type b, and Neisseria meningitidis serogroup C is lower in preterm compared with term infants","volume":"29","author":"Westerbeek","year":"2010","journal-title":"Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"829","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciw027","article-title":"Maternal Immunization Earlier in Pregnancy Maximizes Antibody Transfer and Expected Infant Seropositivity Against Pertussis","volume":"62","author":"Eberhardt","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.1097\/QCO.0000000000000372","article-title":"Placental transfer of antibody and its relationship to vaccination in pregnancy","volume":"30","author":"Calvert","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e300","DOI":"10.1016\/S2666-5247(22)00332-9","article-title":"Optimising the timing of whooping cough immunisation in mums (OpTIMUM) through investigating pertussis vaccination in pregnancy: An open-label, equivalence, randomised controlled trial","volume":"4","author":"Calvert","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lancet Microbe"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2424608","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2024.24608","article-title":"Maternal Pertussis Immunization and Immunoglobulin G Levels in Early- to Late-Term and Preterm Infants","volume":"7","author":"Immink","year":"2024","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. Open"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gomme, J., Wanlapakorn, N., Ha, H.T.T., Leuridan, E., Herzog, S.A., and Maertens, K. (2022). The Impact of Timing of Pertussis Vaccination During Pregnancy on Infant Antibody Levels at Birth: A Multi-Country Analysis. Front. Immunol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.913922"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1451","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2216480","article-title":"Bivalent Prefusion F Vaccine in Pregnancy to Prevent RSV Illness in Infants","volume":"388","author":"Kampmann","year":"2023","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ma, J., Chen, L., Tang, S., and Shi, Y. (2023). Efficacy and safety of respiratory syncytial virus vaccination during pregnancy to prevent lower respiratory tract illness in newborns and infants: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Front. Pediatr., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fped.2023.1260740"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"655","DOI":"10.1016\/S2352-4642(25)00155-5","article-title":"Bivalent prefusion F vaccination in pregnancy and respiratory syncytial virus hospitalisation in infants in the UK: Results of a multicentre, test-negative, case-control study","volume":"9","author":"Williams","year":"2025","journal-title":"Lancet Child Adolesc. Health"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3571","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-022-31169-8","article-title":"Maternal immune response and placental antibody transfer after COVID-19 vaccination across trimester and platforms","volume":"13","author":"Atyeo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baroncelli, S., Galluzzo, C.M., Orlando, S., Mphwere, R., Kavalo, T., Luhanga, R., Amici, R., Floridia, M., Andreotti, M., and Ciccacci, F. (2022). Immunoglobulin G passive transfer from mothers to infants: Total IgG, IgG subclasses and specific antipneumococcal IgG in 6-week Malawian infants exposed or unexposed to HIV. BMC Infect. Dis., 22.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-022-07335-0"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gao, C., Chen, Q., Hao, X., and Wang, Q. (2023). Immunomodulation of Antibody Glycosylation through the Placental Transfer. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms242316772"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qi, T., and Cao, Y. (2021). In Translation: FcRn across the Therapeutic Spectrum. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22063048"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"635","DOI":"10.1097\/00006454-200007000-00010","article-title":"Placental transfer and decay of maternally acquired antimeasles antibodies in Nigerian children","volume":"19","author":"Hartter","year":"2000","journal-title":"Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1111\/sji.12258","article-title":"Placental transfer of IgG antibodies specific to Klebsiella and Pseudomonas LPS and to group B Streptococcus in twin pregnancies","volume":"81","author":"Stach","year":"2015","journal-title":"Scand. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"240","DOI":"10.1097\/COH.0000000000000547","article-title":"B-cell abnormalities in HIV-1 infection: Roles for IgG3 and T-bet","volume":"14","author":"Kardava","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. HIV AIDS"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0509622","DOI":"10.1128\/spectrum.05096-22","article-title":"Leishmania donovani Exploits Tunneling Nanotubes for Dissemination and Propagation of B Cell Activation","volume":"11","author":"Swaminathan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Microbiol. Spectr."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"396","DOI":"10.1002\/eji.201948286","article-title":"LCMV-specific CD4 T cell dependent polyclonal B-cell activation upon persistent viral infection is short lived and extrafollicular","volume":"50","author":"Greczmiel","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"629","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1399-3046.2010.01293.x","article-title":"Long-term monitoring of Epstein-Barr virus DNA load and humoral parameter abnormalities in pediatric liver transplant recipients before development of malignancy","volume":"14","author":"Gregorek","year":"2010","journal-title":"Pediatr. Transplant."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e769","DOI":"10.1097\/CAD.0000000000001187","article-title":"Successful treatment of refractory retroperitoneal Epstein-Barr virus-positive diffuse large B-cell lymphoma with secondary hemophagocytic syndrome by sequential combination regimen of PD-1 blockade and chimeric antigen receptor T cells: A case report","volume":"33","author":"Yu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Anticancer Drugs"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiv401","article-title":"Impact of Placental Malaria and Hypergammaglobulinemia on Transplacental Transfer of Respiratory Syncytial Virus Antibody in Papua New Guinea","volume":"213","author":"Atwell","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"591","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-019-0392-8","article-title":"The repertoire of maternal anti-viral antibodies in human newborns","volume":"25","author":"Pou","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"C1121","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpcell.00356.2021","article-title":"Inflammatory diseases in hematology: A review","volume":"323","author":"Henrie","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Cell Physiol."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Coler, C., King-Nakaoka, E., Every, E., Chima, S., Vong, A., Del Rosario, B., VanAbel, R., and Adams Waldorf, K.M. (2024). Impact of Infections During Pregnancy on Transplacental Antibody Transfer. Vaccines, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines12101199"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2180","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2003-07-2375","article-title":"Mechanisms of hypergammaglobulinemia and impaired antigen-specific humoral immunity in HIV-1 infection","volume":"103","author":"Nilsson","year":"2004","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1756-185X.2009.01458.x","article-title":"The immunological basis of B-cell therapy in systemic lupus erythematosus","volume":"13","author":"Mok","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alijotas-Reig, J., Esteve-Valverde, E., Anunciaci\u00f3n-Llunell, A., Marques-Soares, J., Pardos-Gea, J., and Mir\u00f3-Mur, F. (2022). Pathogenesis, Diagnosis and Management of Obstetric Antiphospholipid Syndrome: A Comprehensive Review. J. Clin. Med., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm11030675"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dzirba, D., Glinko, M., Skoczy\u0144ska, M., Gruszecka, K., Trzeszcz, M., Benedyczak, A., and Szmyrka, M. (2025). Placental Pathology in Obstetric Antiphospholipid Syndrome Beyond Thrombosis: A Case Report and Literature Review. J. Clin. Med., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm14155172"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1016\/j.thromres.2009.07.011","article-title":"Mechanisms of antiphospholipid antibody-associated pregnancy complications","volume":"124","author":"Abrahams","year":"2009","journal-title":"Thromb. Res."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1093\/cei\/uxae079","article-title":"Antibody profiles in the mosaic of \u2018seronegative\u2019 APS syndrome","volume":"218","author":"Truglia","year":"2024","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Riitano, G., Capozzi, A., Recalchi, S., Augusto, M., Conti, F., Misasi, R., Garofalo, T., Sorice, M., and Manganelli, V. (2023). Role of Lipid Rafts on LRP8 Signaling Triggered by Anti-\u03b22-GPI Antibodies in Endothelial Cells. Biomedicines, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines11123135"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2105482118","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2105482118","article-title":"Intensity and frequency of extreme novel epidemics","volume":"118","author":"Marani","year":"2021","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"572","DOI":"10.1086\/526789","article-title":"Normalization of B cell counts and subpopulations after antiretroviral therapy in chronic HIV disease","volume":"197","author":"Moir","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5468","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.03403-12","article-title":"Enhanced phagocytic activity of HIV-specific antibodies correlates with natural production of immunoglobulins with skewed affinity for Fc\u03b3R2a and Fc\u03b3R2b","volume":"87","author":"Ackerman","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1441","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiac222","article-title":"HIV-Associated Alterations of the Biophysical Features of Maternal Antibodies Correlate With Their Reduced Transfer Across the Placenta","volume":"226","author":"Taylor","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1016\/j.placenta.2003.09.010","article-title":"Syncytiotrophoblast degradation and the pathophysiology of the malaria-infected placenta","volume":"25","author":"Crocker","year":"2004","journal-title":"Placenta"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elphinstone, R.E., Weckman, A.M., McDonald, C.R., Tran, V., Zhong, K., Madanitsa, M., Kalilani-Phiri, L., Khairallah, C., Taylor, S.M., and Meshnick, S.R. (2019). Early malaria infection, dysregulation of angiogenesis, metabolism and inflammation across pregnancy, and risk of preterm birth in Malawi: A cohort study. PLoS Med., 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1002914"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1425","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiy735","article-title":"Malaria in Early Pregnancy and the Development of the Placental Vasculature","volume":"220","author":"Moeller","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-2875-13-4","article-title":"A morphometric and histological study of placental malaria shows significant changes to villous architecture in both Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax infection","volume":"13","author":"Chaikitgosiyakul","year":"2014","journal-title":"Malar. J."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"628","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.12.027","article-title":"Compromised SARS-CoV-2-specific placental antibody transfer","volume":"184","author":"Atyeo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3458","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-53580-5","article-title":"Analysis of the transplacental transmission of SARS CoV-2 virus and antibody transfer according to the gestational age at maternal infection","volume":"14","author":"Nallet","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abu-Raya, B., Smolen, K.K., Willems, F., Kollmann, T.R., and Marchant, A. (2016). Transfer of Maternal Antimicrobial Immunity to HIV-Exposed Uninfected Newborns. Front. Immunol., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2016.00338"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4361","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2022.06.034","article-title":"Biological factors that may impair transplacental transfer of RSV antibodies: Implications for maternal immunization policy and research priorities for low- and middle-income countries","volume":"40","author":"Atwell","year":"2022","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2183","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI65708","article-title":"Natural variation in Fc glycosylation of HIV-specific antibodies impacts antiviral activity","volume":"123","author":"Ackerman","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"612","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aaz9447","article-title":"Vaccination strategies to enhance immunity in neonates","volume":"368","author":"Kollmann","year":"2020","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1081","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2016.05.008","article-title":"Zika Virus Infection during Pregnancy in Mice Causes Placental Damage and Fetal Demise","volume":"165","author":"Miner","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0023122","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.00231-22","article-title":"Vertical HIV-1 Transmission in the Setting of Maternal Broad and Potent Antibody Responses","volume":"96","author":"Tu","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1097\/QAD.0000000000003758","article-title":"Maternal immunization in women living with HIV","volume":"38","author":"Dauby","year":"2024","journal-title":"Aids"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s40794-016-0044-7","article-title":"Vaccination of HIV-infected pregnant women: Implications for protection of their young infants","volume":"3","author":"Dangor","year":"2017","journal-title":"Trop. Dis. Travel. Med. Vaccines"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105179","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2024.105179","article-title":"HIV-related immune activation attenuates polyfunctional IgG and memory B-cell responses to Tdap immunization during pregnancy","volume":"104","author":"Taton","year":"2024","journal-title":"eBioMedicine"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"472","DOI":"10.1097\/COH.0000000000000092","article-title":"B-cell exhaustion in HIV infection: The role of immune activation","volume":"9","author":"Moir","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. HIV AIDS"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Golay, J., Andrea, A.E., and Cattaneo, I. (2022). Role of Fc Core Fucosylation in the Effector Function of IgG1 Antibodies. Front. Immunol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.929895"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1007\/s40475-020-00213-2","article-title":"Placental Malaria","volume":"7","author":"Zakama","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Trop. Med. Rep."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1197","DOI":"10.1128\/CVI.00270-15","article-title":"Reduced Transplacental Transfer of a Subset of Epstein-Barr Virus-Specific Antibodies to Neonates of Mothers Infected with Plasmodium falciparum Malaria during Pregnancy","volume":"22","author":"Ogolla","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Vaccine Immunol."},{"key":"ref_133","first-page":"1","article-title":"The novel coronavirus Disease-2019 (COVID-19): Mechanism of action, detection and recent therapeutic strategies","volume":"551","author":"Nikzad","year":"2020","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chilamakuri, R., and Agarwal, S. (2021). COVID-19: Characteristics and Therapeutics. Cells, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells10020206"},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14390","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-93931-0","article-title":"Placental response to maternal SARS-CoV-2 infection","volume":"11","author":"Mourad","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1490","DOI":"10.1038\/s41590-021-01049-2","article-title":"The legacy of maternal SARS-CoV-2 infection on the immunology of the neonate","volume":"22","author":"Gee","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1186\/s13000-021-01067-6","article-title":"Placental pathology of the third trimester pregnant women from COVID-19","volume":"16","author":"Gao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Diagn. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jri.2010.08.062","article-title":"A review of immune transfer by the placenta","volume":"87","author":"Chucri","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Reprod. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10772","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-61496-3","article-title":"Efficient transplacental transfer of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies between naturally exposed mothers and infants in Accra, Ghana","volume":"14","author":"Partey","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2608","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-81862-9","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 infection elicits a rapid neutralizing antibody response that correlates with disease severity","volume":"11","author":"Rodon","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e053036","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2021-053036","article-title":"Passive and active immunity in infants born to mothers with SARS-CoV-2 infection during pregnancy: Prospective cohort study","volume":"11","author":"Song","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e150319","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI150319","article-title":"Efficient maternal to neonatal transfer of antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 and BNT162b2 mRNA COVID-19 vaccine","volume":"131","author":"Beharier","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McIntyre, H.D., Fuglsang, J., Kampmann, U., Knorr, S., and Ovesen, P. (2022). Hyperglycemia in Pregnancy and Women\u2019s Health in the 21st Century. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph192416827"},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1111\/sji.12466","article-title":"Maternal-Foetal Diabetes Modifies Neonatal Fc Receptor Expression on Human Leucocytes","volume":"84","author":"Hara","year":"2016","journal-title":"Scand. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diabres.2007.01.023","article-title":"Morphometric study of placental villi and vessels in women with mild hyperglycemia or gestational or overt diabetes","volume":"78","author":"Calderon","year":"2007","journal-title":"Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165535","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbadis.2019.165535","article-title":"Placental structure in gestational diabetes mellitus","volume":"1866","author":"Moller","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta Mol. Basis Dis."},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/0168-8227(90)90006-F","article-title":"Impaired agglutination of IgM resulting from non-enzymatic glycation in diabetes mellitus","volume":"9","author":"Hammes","year":"1990","journal-title":"Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2021.12.161","article-title":"Biophysical changes in methylglyoxal modified fibrinogen and its role in the immunopathology of type 2 diabetes mellitus","volume":"202","author":"Perween","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1093\/glycob\/cwr141","article-title":"Rates and impact of human antibody glycation in vivo","volume":"22","author":"Goetze","year":"2012","journal-title":"Glycobiology"},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u0160tambuk, T., Kifer, D., Smir\u010di\u0107-Duvnjak, L., Vu\u010di\u0107 Lovren\u010di\u0107, M., and Gornik, O. (2023). Associations between plasma protein, IgG and IgA N-glycosylation and metabolic health markers in pregnancy and gestational diabetes. PLoS ONE, 18.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0284838"},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zahavi, D., and Weiner, L. (2020). Monoclonal Antibodies in Cancer Therapy. Antibodies, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/antib9030034"},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.7861\/clinmedicine.17-3-220","article-title":"Developments in therapy with monoclonal antibodies and related proteins","volume":"17","author":"Shepard","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Med."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E1129","DOI":"10.1503\/cmaj.202391","article-title":"The use and impact of monoclonal antibody biologics during pregnancy","volume":"193","author":"Top","year":"2021","journal-title":"Can. Med Assoc. J."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2361585","DOI":"10.1080\/19420862.2024.2361585","article-title":"Insight into the avidity-affinity relationship of the bivalent, pH-dependent interaction between IgG and FcRn","volume":"16","author":"Reusch","year":"2024","journal-title":"mAbs"},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1923366","DOI":"10.1080\/19420862.2021.1923366","article-title":"The influence of antibody engineering on Fc conformation and Fc receptor binding properties: Analysis of FcRn-binding engineered antibodies and an Fc fusion protein","volume":"13","author":"Suzuki","year":"2021","journal-title":"mAbs"},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1186\/s13036-025-00506-y","article-title":"Engineering FcRn binding kinetics dramatically extends antibody serum half-life and enhances therapeutic potential","volume":"19","author":"Ko","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Biol. Eng."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1131","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2020.11.038","article-title":"Pregnancy and Neonatal Outcomes After Fetal Exposure to Biologics and Thiopurines Among Women With Inflammatory Bowel Disease","volume":"160","author":"Mahadevan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20162819","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2016-2819","article-title":"Septic Episodes in a Premature Infant After In Utero Exposure to Rituximab","volume":"140","author":"Hay","year":"2017","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1499","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2010-07-295444","article-title":"Pregnancy outcomes after maternal exposure to rituximab","volume":"117","author":"Chakravarty","year":"2011","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1092","DOI":"10.1007\/s12098-013-1336-9","article-title":"B cell suppression in newborn following treatment of pregnant diffuse large B-cell lymphoma patient with rituximab containing regimen","volume":"81","author":"Mandal","year":"2014","journal-title":"Indian J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"396","DOI":"10.1038\/ajg.2017.501","article-title":"Long-Term Safety of In Utero Exposure to Anti-TNF\u03b1 Drugs for the Treatment of Inflammatory Bowel Disease: Results from the Multicenter European TEDDY Study","volume":"113","author":"Chaparro","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaut.2016.11.004","article-title":"Outcome of pregnancy and neonatal complications with anti-tumor necrosis factor-\u03b1 use in females with immune mediated diseases; a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"76","author":"Komaki","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Autoimmun."},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"316","DOI":"10.1002\/pds.4930","article-title":"Anti-TNF treatment during pregnancy and birth outcomes: A population-based study from Denmark, Finland, and Sweden","volume":"29","author":"Kieler","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pharmacoepidemiol. Drug Saf."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"892","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tips.2018.07.007","article-title":"Targeting FcRn to Generate Antibody-Based Therapeutics","volume":"39","author":"Ward","year":"2018","journal-title":"Trends Pharmacol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"995","DOI":"10.1093\/ecco-jcc\/jjad005","article-title":"Vaccines in Children Exposed to Biological Agents In Utero and\/or During Breastfeeding: Are They Effective and Safe?","volume":"17","author":"Gisbert","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Crohns Colitis"},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e453","DOI":"10.1212\/NXI.0000000000000453","article-title":"Rituximab before and during pregnancy: A systematic review, and a case series in MS and NMOSD","volume":"5","author":"Das","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neurol. Neuroimmunol. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1007\/s40259-022-00564-4","article-title":"Fetal and Neonatal Adverse Drug Reactions Associated with Biologics Taken During Pregnancy by Women with Autoimmune Diseases: Insights from an Analysis of the World Health Organization Pharmacovigilance Database (VigiBase\u00ae)","volume":"37","author":"Dernoncourt","year":"2023","journal-title":"BioDrugs"},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"keab247.197","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/keab247.197","article-title":"P202 Administering live vaccines to infants exposed to biologic and targeted synthetic DMARDs in-utero for maternal treatment of rheumatic disease: A systematic review of the literature","volume":"60","author":"Goulden","year":"2021","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1699","DOI":"10.1007\/s40265-020-01376-y","article-title":"Intrauterine Exposure to Biologics in Inflammatory Autoimmune Diseases: A Systematic Review","volume":"80","author":"Ghalandari","year":"2020","journal-title":"Drugs"},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100029","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prmedi.2025.100029","article-title":"Biologic therapy for immune-mediated inflammatory diseases during pregnancy and lactation: Efficacy, safety, and challenges","volume":"2","author":"Han","year":"2025","journal-title":"Precis. Medicat."},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"795","DOI":"10.1136\/annrheumdis-2015-208840","article-title":"The EULAR points to consider for use of antirheumatic drugs before pregnancy, and during pregnancy and lactation","volume":"75","author":"Hoeltzenbein","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00801-17","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.00801-17","article-title":"Animal and Human Tissue Models of Vertical Listeria monocytogenes Transmission and Implications for Other Pregnancy-Associated Infections","volume":"86","author":"Lowe","year":"2018","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1038\/s41576-019-0169-4","article-title":"Mechanisms of early placental development in mouse and humans","volume":"21","author":"Hemberger","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Genet."},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2470542","DOI":"10.1080\/21645515.2025.2470542","article-title":"Impact of FcRn antagonism on vaccine-induced protective immune responses against viral challenge in COVID-19 and influenza mouse vaccination models","volume":"21","author":"Warang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Hum. Vaccin. Immunother."},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymeth.2013.07.005","article-title":"Humanized FcRn mouse models for evaluating pharmacokinetics of human IgG antibodies","volume":"65","author":"Proetzel","year":"2014","journal-title":"Methods"},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3528","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.170.7.3528","article-title":"The MHC class I-like IgG receptor controls perinatal IgG transport, IgG homeostasis, and fate of IgG-Fc-coupled drugs","volume":"170","author":"Roopenian","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2583","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.0803247","article-title":"FcRn in the yolk sac endoderm of mouse is required for IgG transport to fetus","volume":"182","author":"Kim","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1006\/excr.2001.5330","article-title":"Apical to basolateral transcytosis and apical recycling of immunoglobulin G in trophoblast-derived BeWo cells: Effects of low temperature, nocodazole, and cytochalasin D","volume":"269","author":"Ellinger","year":"2001","journal-title":"Exp. Cell Res."},{"key":"ref_179","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"733","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1521-4141(199903)29:03<733::AID-IMMU733>3.0.CO;2-C","article-title":"IgG transport across trophoblast-derived BeWo cells: A model system to study IgG transport in the placenta","volume":"29","author":"Ellinger","year":"1999","journal-title":"Eur. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1111\/bcpt.12228","article-title":"Modelling of human transplacental transport as performed in Copenhagen, Denmark","volume":"115","author":"Mathiesen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Basic. Clin. Pharmacol. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_181","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"962","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-024-45279-y","article-title":"Trophoblast stem cell-based organoid models of the human placental barrier","volume":"15","author":"Hori","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jri.2016.04.284","article-title":"Certolizumab pegol does not bind the neonatal Fc receptor (FcRn): Consequences for FcRn-mediated in vitro transcytosis and ex vivo human placental transfer","volume":"116","author":"Porter","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Reprod. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaut.2013.08.005","article-title":"Antiphospholipid antibodies internalised by human syncytiotrophoblast cause aberrant cell death and the release of necrotic trophoblast debris","volume":"47","author":"Viall","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Autoimmun."},{"key":"ref_184","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"498.e491","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2019.02.058","article-title":"M281, an anti-FcRn antibody, inhibits IgG transfer in a human ex vivo placental perfusion model","volume":"220","author":"Roy","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_185","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160403","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.160403","article-title":"Experimental human placental models for studying uptake, transport and toxicity of micro- and nanoplastics","volume":"860","author":"Dusza","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_186","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tiv.2012.08.027","article-title":"Placental transfer and metabolism: An overview of the experimental models utilizing human placental tissue","volume":"27","author":"Myllynen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Toxicol. In Vitro"},{"key":"ref_187","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wessel, R.E., and Dolatshahi, S. (2023). Quantitative mechanistic model reveals key determinants of placental IgG transfer and informs prenatal immunization strategies. PLoS Comput. Biol., 19.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1011109"},{"key":"ref_188","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3356","DOI":"10.1021\/acsbiomaterials.8b00653","article-title":"Placental Barrier-on-a-Chip: Modeling Placental Inflammatory Responses to Bacterial Infection","volume":"4","author":"Zhu","year":"2018","journal-title":"ACS Biomater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_189","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1046","DOI":"10.3109\/14767058.2015.1038518","article-title":"Placenta-on-a-chip: A novel platform to study the biology of the human placenta","volume":"29","author":"Lee","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Matern. Fetal Neonatal Med."},{"key":"ref_190","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Di Filippo, J.I., Bollini, M., and Cavasotto, C.N. (2021). A Machine Learning Model to Predict Drug Transfer Across the Human Placenta Barrier. Front. Chem., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fchem.2021.714678"},{"key":"ref_191","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molimm.2018.01.006","article-title":"Human IgG lacking effector functions demonstrate lower FcRn-binding and reduced transplacental transport","volume":"95","author":"Stapleton","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_192","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/j.placenta.2022.07.019","article-title":"Contribution of the ex vivo placental perfusion model in understanding transplacental immunoglobulin G transfer","volume":"127","author":"Sand","year":"2022","journal-title":"Placenta"},{"key":"ref_193","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1399","DOI":"10.1097\/CM9.0000000000003114","article-title":"Role of maternal-fetal immune tolerance in the establishment and maintenance of pregnancy","volume":"137","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Chin. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_194","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1038\/nbt.1601","article-title":"Enhanced antibody half-life improves in vivo activity","volume":"28","author":"Zalevsky","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_195","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2020.07.016","article-title":"Targeting FcRn for immunomodulation: Benefits, risks, and practical considerations","volume":"146","author":"Peter","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_196","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2024","DOI":"10.1038\/s41590-024-01971-1","article-title":"Regulators of placental antibody transfer through a modeling lens","volume":"25","author":"Wessel","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."}],"container-title":["Antibodies"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4468\/15\/1\/14\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,9]],"date-time":"2026-02-09T08:34:41Z","timestamp":1770626081000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4468\/15\/1\/14"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,6]]},"references-count":196,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2]]}},"alternative-id":["antib15010014"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/antib15010014","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-4468"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-4468","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,6]]}}}