{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,22]],"date-time":"2026-10-22T15:52:35Z","timestamp":1792684355660,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":95,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,11]],"date-time":"2021-05-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1620691200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001704","name":"European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["20200063"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20200063"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001704","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004837","name":"Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovaci\u00f3n","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["Ram\u00f3n y Cajal Call 2019"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Ram\u00f3n y Cajal Call 2019"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004837","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Antibiotics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The irrational use of antibiotics has led to a high emergence of multi-drug resistant (MDR) bacteria. The traditional overuse of antibiotics in the animal feed industry plays a crucial role in the emergence of these pathogens that pose both economic and health problems. In addition, antibiotics have also recently experienced an increase to treat companion animal infections, promoting the emergence of MDR bacteria in pets, which can reach humans. Phages have been proposed as an alternative for antibiotics for the treatment of livestock and companion animal infections due to their multiple advantages as adaptative drugs, such as their ability to evolve, to multiply at the site of infections, and their high specificity. Moreover, phage-derived enzymes may also be an interesting approach. However, the lack of regulation for this type of pharmaceutical hinders its potential commercialization. In this review, we summarize the main recent studies on phage therapy in livestock and companion animals, providing an insight into current advances in this area and the future of treatments for bacterial infections.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics10050559","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,11]],"date-time":"2021-05-11T10:20:36Z","timestamp":1620728436000},"page":"559","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":67,"title":["Phage Therapy in Livestock and Companion Animals"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Celia","family":"Ferriol-Gonz\u00e1lez","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Genetics, Universitat de Val\u00e8ncia, 46100 Valencia, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pilar","family":"Domingo-Calap","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Genetics, Universitat de Val\u00e8ncia, 46100 Valencia, Spain"},{"name":"Institute for Integrative Systems Biology, I2SysBio, Universitat de Val\u00e8ncia-CSIC, 46980 Valencia, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(15)00466-1","article-title":"Alternatives to Antibiotics\u2014A Pipeline Portfolio Review","volume":"16","author":"Czaplewski","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Machowska, A., and St\u00e5lsby Lundborg, C. (2019). Drivers of Irrational Use of Antibiotics in Europe. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph16010027"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"(2021, February 16). The World Medicines Situation 2011-Rational Use of Medicines. Available online: http:\/\/digicollection.org\/hss\/en\/m\/abstract\/Js18064en\/."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-publhealth-040218-043954","article-title":"External Societal Costs of Antimicrobial Resistance in Humans Attributable to Antimicrobial Use in Livestock","volume":"41","author":"Innes","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann. Rev. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"(2021, March 16). WHO|Global Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance. Available online: http:\/\/www.who.int\/antimicrobial-resistance\/publications\/global-action-plan\/en\/."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bandyopadhyay, S., and Samanta, I. (2020). Antimicrobial Resistance in Agri-Food Chain and Companion Animals as a Re-Emerging Menace in Post-COVID Epoch: Low-and Middle-Income Countries Perspective and Mitigation Strategies. Front. Vet. Sci., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2020.00620"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1453","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(20)30444-7","article-title":"COVID-19 Pneumonia and the Appropriate Use of Antibiotics","volume":"8","author":"Ginsburg","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Beovi\u0107, B., Dou\u0161ak, M., Ferreira-Coimbra, J., Nadrah, K., Rubulotta, F., Belliato, M., Berger-Estilita, J., Ayoade, F., Rello, J., and Erdem, H. (2020). Antibiotic Use in Patients with COVID-19: A \u2018Snapshot\u2019 Infectious Diseases International Research Initiative (ID-IRI) Survey. J. Antimicrob. Chemother.","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkaa326"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S16","DOI":"10.1038\/509S16a","article-title":"Public Health: The Politics of Antibiotics","volume":"509","author":"Cully","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cuong, N.V., Padungtod, P., Thwaites, G., and Carrique-Mas, J.J. (2018). Antimicrobial Usage in Animal Production: A Review of the Literature with a Focus on Low- and Middle-Income Countries. Antibiotics, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics7030075"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaaw1944","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aaw1944","article-title":"Global Trends in Antimicrobial Resistance in Animals in Low- and Middle-Income Countries","volume":"365","author":"Pires","year":"2019","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1683","DOI":"10.4014\/jmb.1909.09030","article-title":"Mitigating Antibiotic Resistance at the Livestock-Environment Interface: A Review","volume":"29","author":"Ma","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"World Health Organization, and Department of Food Safety and Zoonoses (2017). World Health Organization WHO Guidelines on Use of Medically Important Antimicrobials in Food-Producing Animals, WHO."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micpath.2016.11.002","article-title":"Weight Gain by Gut Microbiota Manipulation in Productive Animals","volume":"106","author":"Angelakis","year":"2017","journal-title":"Microb. Pathog."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkh332","article-title":"Pet Animals as Reservoirs of Antimicrobial-Resistant Bacteria","volume":"54","author":"Guardabassi","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pyzik, E., Urban-Chmiel, R., and Radzki, R.P. (2020). Experimental Phage Therapies in Companion Animals with Historical Review. Curr. Clin. Pharmacol.","DOI":"10.2174\/1574884715666200330105411"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S148","DOI":"10.1086\/519254","article-title":"Reservoirs of Antimicrobial Resistance in Pet Animals","volume":"45","author":"Lloyd","year":"2007","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2326","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dku173","article-title":"Viruses versus Bacteria-Novel Approaches to Phage Therapy as a Tool against Multidrug-Resistant Pathogens","volume":"69","author":"Viertel","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1016\/j.femsre.2003.08.001","article-title":"Ecology of Prokaryotic Viruses","volume":"28","author":"Weinbauer","year":"2004","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tibtech.2006.03.003","article-title":"Bacteriophages and Biotechnology: Vaccines, Gene Therapy and Antibacterials","volume":"24","author":"Clark","year":"2006","journal-title":"Trends Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Domingo-Calap, P., and Delgado-Mart\u00ednez, J. (2018). Bacteriophages: Protagonists of a Post-Antibiotic Era. Antibiotics, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics7030066"},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"159","article-title":"The bacteriophage, one hundred years of significant findings","volume":"35","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biom\u00e9dica"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2660","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2017.02660","article-title":"Applications for Bacteriophage Therapy during Pregnancy and the Perinatal Period","volume":"8","author":"Furfaro","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Haddad Kashani, H., Schmelcher, M., Sabzalipoor, H., Seyed Hosseini, E., and Moniri, R. (2017). Recombinant Endolysins as Potential Therapeutics against Antibiotic-Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus: Current Status of Research and Novel Delivery Strategies. Clin. Microbiol. Rev., 31.","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00071-17"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.4161\/bact.1.2.15845","article-title":"Phage Treatment of Human Infections","volume":"1","author":"Abedon","year":"2011","journal-title":"Bacteriophage"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1080\/00480169.2018.1491348","article-title":"Bacteriophage Therapy for Management of Bacterial Infections in Veterinary Practice: What Was Once Old Is New Again","volume":"66","author":"Squires","year":"2018","journal-title":"N. Z. Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Allen, R.C., Pfrunder-Cardozo, K.R., Meinel, D., Egli, A., and Hall, A.R. (2017). Associations among Antibiotic and Phage Resistance Phenotypes in Natural and Clinical Escherichia Coli Isolates. mBio, 8.","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.01341-17"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, L.-K., Kuo, S.-C., Chang, K.-C., Cheng, C.-C., Yu, P.-Y., Chang, C.-H., Chen, T.-Y., and Tseng, C.-C. (2017). Clinical Antibiotic-Resistant Acinetobacter Baumannii Strains with Higher Susceptibility to Environmental Phages than Antibiotic-Sensitive Strains. Sci. Rep., 7.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-06688-w"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1067\/mcp.2000.109520","article-title":"Phage Therapy: The Peculiar Kinetics of Self-Replicating Pharmaceuticals","volume":"68","author":"Payne","year":"2000","journal-title":"Clin. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Miller-Ensminger, T., Garretto, A., Brenner, J., Thomas-White, K., Zambom, A., Wolfe, A.J., and Putonti, C. (2018). Bacteriophages of the Urinary Microbiome. J. Bacteriol., 200.","DOI":"10.1128\/JB.00738-17"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Melo, L.D.R., Veiga, P., Cerca, N., Kropinski, A.M., Almeida, C., Azeredo, J., and Sillankorva, S. (2016). Development of a Phage Cocktail to Control Proteus Mirabilis Catheter-Associated Urinary Tract Infections. Front. Microbiol., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2016.01024"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"769","DOI":"10.2217\/fmb.13.47","article-title":"Phage Cocktails and the Future of Phage Therapy","volume":"8","author":"Chan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Futur. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46151","DOI":"10.1038\/srep46151","article-title":"Bacteriophages from ExPEC Reservoirs Kill Pandemic Multidrug-Resistant Strains of Clonal Group ST131 in Animal Models of Bacteremia","volume":"7","author":"Green","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fischer, S., Kittler, S., Klein, G., and Gl\u00fcnder, G. (2013). Impact of a Single Phage and a Phage Cocktail Application in Broilers on Reduction of Campylobacter Jejuni and Development of Resistance. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0078543"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yu, L., Wang, S., Guo, Z., Liu, H., Sun, D., Yan, G., Hu, D., Du, C., Feng, X., and Han, W. (2018). A Guard-Killer Phage Cocktail Effectively Lyses the Host and Inhibits the Development of Phage-Resistant Strains of Escherichia Coli. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 102.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00253-017-8591-z"},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"(2021, February 14). Biological Challenges of Phage Therapy and Proposed Solutions: A Literature Review, Available online: https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC6919273\/."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cis.2017.05.014","article-title":"Formulation, Stabilisation and Encapsulation of Bacteriophage for Phage Therapy","volume":"249","author":"Malik","year":"2017","journal-title":"Adv. Colloid Interf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01311045","article-title":"The Influence of a Non-Ionic Surfactant on Rectal Absorption of Virus Particles","volume":"106","author":"Sechter","year":"1989","journal-title":"Arch. Virol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"748","DOI":"10.1007\/s10517-020-04794-w","article-title":"Analysis of the Pharmacokinetics of Suppository Forms of Bacteriophages","volume":"168","author":"Bochkareva","year":"2020","journal-title":"Bull Exp. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"959","DOI":"10.1080\/17425247.2017.1252329","article-title":"Inhaled Phage Therapy: A Promising and Challenging Approach to Treat Bacterial Respiratory Infections","volume":"14","author":"Morello","year":"2017","journal-title":"Exp. Opin. Drug Deliv."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micpath.2016.08.001","article-title":"In Vivo Efficacy of Single Phage versus Phage Cocktail in Resolving Burn Wound Infection in BALB\/c Mice","volume":"99","author":"Chadha","year":"2016","journal-title":"Microb. Pathog."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2563","DOI":"10.1007\/s00253-018-8811-1","article-title":"Applications of Bacteriophages versus Phage Enzymes to Combat and Cure Bacterial Infections: An Ambitious and Also a Realistic Application?","volume":"102","author":"Maciejewska","year":"2018","journal-title":"Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"S\u00e3o-Jos\u00e9, C. (2018). Engineering of Phage-Derived Lytic Enzymes: Improving Their Potential as Antimicrobials. Antibiotics (Basel), 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics7020029"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ferriol-Gonz\u00e1lez, C., and Domingo-Calap, P. (2020). Phages for Biofilm Removal. Antibiotics, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics9050268"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"583","DOI":"10.1080\/1040841X.2016.1271309","article-title":"Bacteriophages and Their Derivatives for the Treatment and Control of Food-Producing Animal Infections","volume":"43","author":"Carvalho","year":"2017","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jgar.2020.01.005","article-title":"Antimicrobial Activity of LysSS, a Novel Phage Endolysin, against Acinetobacter Baumannii and Pseudomonas Aeruginosa","volume":"22","author":"Kim","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Glob. Antimicrob. Resist."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1757","DOI":"10.2174\/0929867322666150209152851","article-title":"Bacteriophages and Phage-Derived Proteins--Application Approaches","volume":"22","author":"Maciejewska","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"799","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.micro.54.1.799","article-title":"Holins: The Protein Clocks of Bacteriophage Infections","volume":"54","author":"Wang","year":"2000","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3780697","DOI":"10.1155\/2017\/3780697","article-title":"Bacteriophages and Their Immunological Applications against Infectious Threats","volume":"2017","author":"Criscuolo","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Immunol. Res."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2141","DOI":"10.1007\/s00253-015-7247-0","article-title":"Bacteriophage-Encoded Depolymerases: Their Diversity and Biotechnological Applications","volume":"100","author":"Pires","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mib.2017.09.004","article-title":"Phage Therapy as an Alternative or Complementary Strategy to Prevent and Control Biofilm-Related Infections","volume":"39","author":"Pires","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resmic.2019.01.003","article-title":"Protective and Therapeutic Application of the Depolymerase Derived from a Novel KN1 Genotype of Klebsiella Pneumoniae Bacteriophage in Mice","volume":"170","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Res. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"762","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jgar.2020.06.020","article-title":"In Vitro and in Vivo Assessment of Phage Therapy against Staphylococcus Aureus Causing Bovine Mastitis","volume":"22","author":"Duprez","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Glob. Antimicrob. Resist."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2348","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2017.02348","article-title":"Efficacy and Safety of a Bovine-Associated Staphylococcus Aureus Phage Cocktail in a Murine Model of Mastitis","volume":"8","author":"Breyne","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Titze, I., and Kr\u00f6mker, V. (2020). Antimicrobial Activity of a Phage Mixture and a Lactic Acid Bacterium against Staphylococcusaureus from Bovine Mastitis. Vet. Sci., 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/vetsci7010031"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2009-2299","article-title":"Susceptibility of Escherichia Coli Isolated from Uteri of Postpartum Dairy Cows to Antibiotic and Environmental Bacteriophages. Part II: In Vitro Antimicrobial Activity Evaluation of a Bacteriophage Cocktail and Several Antibiotics","volume":"93","author":"Santos","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"244","DOI":"10.1111\/lam.13010","article-title":"Isolation and Genome Analysis of a Lytic Pasteurella Multocida Bacteriophage PMP-GAD-IND","volume":"67","author":"Qureshi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lett. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.00785-09","article-title":"Phage Therapy to Reduce Preprocessing Salmonella Infections in Market-Weight Swine","volume":"76","author":"Wall","year":"2010","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Harper, D.R., Abedon, S.T., Burrowes, B.H., and McConville, M.L. (2019). Biofilm Applications of Bacteriophages. Bacteriophages, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-40598-8"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"666","DOI":"10.1136\/thoraxjnl-2016-209265","article-title":"Phage Therapy Is Highly Effective against Chronic Lung Infections with Pseudomonas Aeruginosa","volume":"72","author":"Waters","year":"2017","journal-title":"Thorax"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2301","DOI":"10.2147\/IDR.S179701","article-title":"Efficacy of \u03a6km18p Phage Therapy in a Murine Model of Extensively Drug-Resistant Acinetobacter Baumannii Infection","volume":"11","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Infect. Drug Resist."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"512","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micinf.2014.02.011","article-title":"Experimental Phage Therapy against Lethal Lung-Derived Septicemia Caused by Staphylococcus Aureus in Mice","volume":"16","author":"Uchiyama","year":"2014","journal-title":"Microb. Infect."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14187","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms14187","article-title":"A Cocktail of Three Virulent Bacteriophages Prevents Vibrio Cholerae Infection in Animal Models","volume":"8","author":"Yen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2010.05.014","article-title":"Topical Treatment of Pseudomonas Aeruginosa Otitis of Dogs with a Bacteriophage Mixture: A before\/after Clinical Trial","volume":"146","author":"Hawkins","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"778","DOI":"10.1111\/1348-0421.12846","article-title":"Susceptibility of Pseudomonas Aeruginosa Veterinary Isolates to Pbunavirus PB1-like Phages","volume":"64","author":"Fujiki","year":"2020","journal-title":"Microbiol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rvsc.2007.09.004","article-title":"Naturally Occurring Bacteriophages Lyse a Large Proportion of Canine and Feline Uropathogenic Escherichia Coli Isolates in Vitro","volume":"85","author":"Freitag","year":"2008","journal-title":"Res. Veter. Sci."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5332","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.01166-16","article-title":"Phage Therapy Is Effective in a Mouse Model of Bacterial Equine Keratitis","volume":"82","author":"Furusawa","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1055\/a-0959-5528","article-title":"The Use of a Salmonella Bacteriophage in Bearded Dragons: Application, Passage Time and Reisolation","volume":"47","author":"Renfert","year":"2019","journal-title":"Tierarztl. Prax. Ausg. K Kleintiere Heimtiere"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1017\/S1466252319000161","article-title":"Efficacy of Experimental Phage Therapies in Livestock","volume":"21","author":"Dec","year":"2020","journal-title":"Anim. Health Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McCarthy, A.J., and Lindsay, J.A. (2010). Genetic Variation in Staphylococcus Aureus Surface and Immune Evasion Genes Is Lineage Associated: Implications for Vaccine Design and Host-Pathogen Interactions. BMC Microbiol., 10.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2180-10-173"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMp0804651","article-title":"Antibiotic-Resistant Bugs in the 21st Century\u2014A Clinical Super-Challenge","volume":"360","author":"Arias","year":"2009","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1080\/01652176.2007.9695224","article-title":"Economic Effects of Bovine Mastitis and Mastitis Management: A Review","volume":"29","author":"Halasa","year":"2007","journal-title":"Vet. Quart."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1007\/s12223-019-00729-9","article-title":"Evaluation of Phage Therapy in the Treatment of Staphylococcus Aureus-Induced Mastitis in Mice","volume":"65","author":"Geng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Folia Microbiol. (Praha)"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1025","DOI":"10.1095\/biolreprod.109.077370","article-title":"Defining Postpartum Uterine Disease and the Mechanisms of Infection and Immunity in the Female Reproductive Tract in Cattle","volume":"81","author":"Sheldon","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biol. Reprod."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"887","DOI":"10.1016\/j.theriogenology.2015.10.038","article-title":"Effect of Puerperal Metritis on Reproductive and Productive Performance in Dairy Cows in Argentina","volume":"85","author":"Piccardi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Theriogenology"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106504","DOI":"10.1016\/j.anireprosci.2020.106504","article-title":"Bacteriophages and Associated Endolysins in Therapy and Prevention of Mastitis and Metritis in Cows: Current Knowledge","volume":"218","author":"Janowski","year":"2020","journal-title":"Anim. Reprod. Sci."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3100","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2011-5063","article-title":"The Effect of Intrauterine Administration of Mannose or Bacteriophage on Uterine Health and Fertility of Dairy Cows with Special Focus on Escherichia Coli and Arcanobacterium Pyogenes","volume":"95","author":"Machado","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7658","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2013-6774","article-title":"The Effect of Prepartum Intravaginal Bacteriophage Administration on the Incidence of Retained Placenta and Metritis","volume":"96","author":"Meira","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1079\/AHR2005105","article-title":"Escherichia Coli in Postweaning Diarrhea in Pigs: An Update on Bacterial Types, Pathogenesis, and Prevention Strategies","volume":"6","author":"Fairbrother","year":"2005","journal-title":"Anim. Health Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wernicki, A., Nowaczek, A., and Urban-Chmiel, R. (2017). Bacteriophage Therapy to Combat Bacterial Infections in Poultry. Virol. J., 14.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12985-017-0849-7"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100696","DOI":"10.1016\/j.margen.2019.100696","article-title":"Comparative Genomic Analysis of Three Lytic Lactococcus Garvieae Phages, Novel Phages with Genome Architecture Linking the 936 Phage Species of Lactococcus Lactis","volume":"48","author":"Hoai","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mar. Genom."},{"key":"ref_82","unstructured":"(2020, April 14). Intralytix, Inc. Available online: http:\/\/www.intralytix.com\/index.php?page=prod&id=1."},{"key":"ref_83","unstructured":"(2020, April 14). PhageGuard-The Natural Solution for Food Safety. Available online: http:\/\/phageguard.com\/."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513770","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2020.513770","article-title":"Vets\u2019 and Pet Owners\u2019 Views About Antibiotics for Companion Animals and the Use of Phages as an Alternative","volume":"7","author":"Ogden","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lynch, S.A., and Helbig, K.J. (2021). The Complex Diseases of Staphylococcus Pseudintermedius in Canines: Where to Next?. Vet. Sci., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/vetsci8010011"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McCallin, S., Sacher, J.C., Zheng, J., and Chan, B.K. (2019). Current State of Compassionate Phage Therapy. Viruses, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/v11040343"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fauconnier, A. (2019). Phage Therapy Regulation: From Night to Dawn. Viruses, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/v11040352"},{"key":"ref_88","unstructured":"Russian Pharmacopoeia (2021, April 14). OFS.1.7.1.0002.15 Bacteriophages are Therapeutic and Prophylactic. Available online: http:\/\/pharmacopoeia.ru\/ofs-1-7-1-0002-15-bakteriofagi-lechebno-profilakticheskie\/."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2166","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(05)66759-1","article-title":"Georgia: An Unlikely Stronghold for Bacteriophage Therapy","volume":"365","author":"Parfitt","year":"2005","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.15252\/embr.201643250","article-title":"Regulating Phage Therapy: The Biological Master File Concept Could Help to Overcome Regulatory Challenge of Personalized Medicines","volume":"18","author":"Fauconnier","year":"2017","journal-title":"EMBO Rep."},{"key":"ref_91","unstructured":"(2021, April 15). Actualit\u00e9-Phagoth\u00e9rapie: L\u2019ANSM Annonce la Cr\u00e9ation d\u2019un Comit\u00e9 Scientifique Sp\u00e9cialis\u00e9 Temporaire (CSST) Intitul\u00e9 \u201cPhagoth\u00e9rapie\u2013Retour d\u2019Exp\u00e9rience et Perspectives\u201d-ANSM. Available online: https:\/\/ansm.sante.fr\/actualites\/phagotherapie-lansm-annonce-la-creation-dun-comite-scientifique-specialise-temporaire-csst-intitule-phagotherapie-retour-dexperience-et-perspectives."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alsaadi, A., Beamud, B., Easwaran, M., Abdelrahman, F., El-Shibiny, A., Alghoribi, M.F., and Domingo-Calap, P. (2021). Learning From Mistakes: The Role of Phages in Pandemics. Front. Microbiol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2021.653107"},{"key":"ref_93","unstructured":"Adaptive Phage Therapeutics, Inc. (2021, April 14). Expanded Access Study of Phage Treatment in Covid-19 Patients on Anti-Microbials for Pneumonia or Bacteremia\/Septicemia Due to A. baumannii, P. aeruginosa or S. aureus, Available online: http:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT04636554."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1186\/s12985-019-1260-3","article-title":"Veterinary Use of Bacteriophage Therapy in Intensively-Reared Livestock","volume":"16","author":"Gigante","year":"2019","journal-title":"Virol. J."},{"key":"ref_95","unstructured":"(2021, April 14). Answer to Question No E-002838\/18. Available online: https:\/\/www.europarl.europa.eu\/doceo\/document\/E-8-2018-002838-ASW_EN.html."}],"container-title":["Antibiotics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6382\/10\/5\/559\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:59:11Z","timestamp":1760162351000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6382\/10\/5\/559"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,11]]},"references-count":95,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,5]]}},"alternative-id":["antibiotics10050559"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/antibiotics10050559","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-6382"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-6382","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,11]]}}}