{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,26]],"date-time":"2026-08-26T08:50:43Z","timestamp":1787734243952,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":111,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,7]],"date-time":"2021-06-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1623024000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Antibiotics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Indigenous trade of medicinal plants in South Africa is a multi-million-rand industry and is still highly relevant in terms of primary health care. The purpose of this study was to identify today\u2019s most traded medicinal barks, traditionally and contemporaneously used for dermatological, gastrointestinal, and respiratory tract infections; then, to investigate the antimicrobial activity and toxicity of the respective extracts and interpret outcomes in light of pharmacokinetics. Thirty-one popularly traded medicinal barks were purchased from the Faraday and Kwa Mai-Mai markets in Johannesburg, South Africa. Information on the medicinal uses of bark-based medicines in modern commerce was recorded from randomly selected traders. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) method was used for antimicrobial screening, and brine shrimp lethality was used to determine toxicity. New medicinal uses were recorded for 14 bark species. Plants demonstrating some broad-spectrum activities against tested bacteria include Elaeodendron transvaalense, Erythrina lysistemon, Garcinia livingstonei, Pterocelastrus rostratus, Rapanea melanophloeos, Schotia brachypetala, Sclerocarya birrea, and Ziziphus mucronata. The lowest MIC value of 0.004 mg\/mL was observed against Staphylococcus epidermidis for a dichloromethane bark extract of E. lysistemon. The tested medicinal barks were shown to be non-toxic against the Artemia nauplii (brine shrimp) bioassay, except for a methanol extract from Trichilia emetica (69.52% mortality). Bacterial inhibition of bark extracts with minimal associated toxicity is consistent with the safety and valuable use of medicinal barks for local muthi market customers. Antimicrobial outcomes against skin and gastrointestinal pathogens are feasible because mere contact-inhibition is required in vivo; however, MIC values against respiratory pathogens require further explaining from a pharmacokinetics or pharmacodynamics perspective, particularly for ingested rather than smoked therapies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics10060681","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,7]],"date-time":"2021-06-07T13:25:43Z","timestamp":1623072343000},"page":"681","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["South Africa\u2019s Best BARK Medicines Prescribed at the Johannesburg Muthi Markets for Skin, Gut, and Lung Infections: MIC\u2019s and Brine Shrimp Lethality"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8961-3185","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gugulethu P.","family":"Khumalo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Botany and Plant Biotechnology, University of Johannesburg, P.O. Box 524, Auckland Park 2006, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7593-1289","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nicholas J.","family":"Sadgrove","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Botany and Plant Biotechnology, University of Johannesburg, P.O. Box 524, Auckland Park 2006, South Africa"},{"name":"Jodrell Science Laboratory, Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, Richmond, Surrey TW9 3DS, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4859-1845","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sandy F.","family":"Van Vuuren","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, 7 York Road, Park Town 2193, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ben-Erik","family":"Van Wyk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Botany and Plant Biotechnology, University of Johannesburg, P.O. Box 524, Auckland Park 2006, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1163\/22941932-20160151","article-title":"Iawa list of microscopic bark features","volume":"37","author":"Angyalossy","year":"2016","journal-title":"IAWA J."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Evert, R.F. (2006). Esau\u2019s Plant Anatomy: Meristems, Cells, and Tissues of the Plant Body: Their Structure, Function, and Development, National Library of Australia. [3rd ed.].","DOI":"10.1002\/0470047380"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"726","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biotechadv.2017.07.007","article-title":"Valorisation of softwood bark through extraction of utilizable chemicals: A review","volume":"35","author":"Jablonsky","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biotechnol. 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