{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,9]],"date-time":"2026-10-09T02:13:08Z","timestamp":1791511988474,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":97,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,24]],"date-time":"2021-09-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1632441600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Antibiotics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Beta-lactam antibiotics are often the backbone of treatment for Gram-negative infections in the critically ill. Beta-lactams exhibit time-dependent killing, and their efficacy depends on the percentage of dosing interval that the concentration remains above the minimum inhibitory concentration. The Gram-negative resistance rates of pathogens are increasing in the intensive care unit (ICU), and critically ill patients often possess physiology that makes dosing more challenging. The volume of distribution is usually increased, and drug clearance is variable. Augmented renal clearance and hypermetabolic states increase the clearance of beta-lactams, while acute kidney injury reduces the clearance. To overcome the factors affecting ICU patients and decreasing susceptibilities, dosing strategies involving higher doses, and extended or continuous infusions may be required. In this review, we specifically examined pharmacokinetic models in ICU patients, to determine the desired beta-lactam regimens for clinical breakpoints of Enterobacterales and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, as determined by the European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing. The beta-lactams evaluated included penicillins, cephalosporins, carbapenems, and monobactams. We found that when treating less-susceptible pathogens, especially P. aeruginosa, continuous infusions are frequently needed to achieve the desired pharmacokinetic\/pharmacodynamic targets. More studies are needed to determine optimal dosing strategies in the novel beta-lactams.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics10101154","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,24]],"date-time":"2021-09-24T20:15:32Z","timestamp":1632514532000},"page":"1154","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":27,"title":["Beta-Lactams Dosing in Critically Ill Patients with Gram-Negative Bacterial Infections: A PK\/PD Approach"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Kelly L.","family":"Maguigan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Pharmacy Department, University of Florida Health Shands Hospital, Gainesville, FL 32608, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1432-5175","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohammad H.","family":"Al-Shaer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Infectious Disease Pharmacokinetics Lab, College of Pharmacy and Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Charles A.","family":"Peloquin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Infectious Disease Pharmacokinetics Lab, College of Pharmacy and Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1464","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-017-4878-x","article-title":"Antimicrobial resistance in the next 30 years, humankind, bugs and drugs: A visionary approach","volume":"43","author":"Bassetti","year":"2017","journal-title":"Intensiv. 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