{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,1]],"date-time":"2026-11-01T01:38:46Z","timestamp":1793497126549,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":81,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,8]],"date-time":"2022-03-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1646697600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Antibiotics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Bloodstream infections (BSIs) in critically ill patients are associated with significant mortality. For patients with septic shock, antibiotics should be administered within the hour. Probabilistic treatment should be targeted to the most likely pathogens, considering the source and risk factors for bacterial resistance including local epidemiology. Source control is a critical component of the management. Sending blood cultures (BCs) and other specimens before antibiotic administration, without delaying them, is key to microbiological diagnosis and subsequent opportunities for antimicrobial stewardship. Molecular rapid diagnostic testing may provide faster identification of pathogens and specific resistance patterns from the initial positive BC. Results allow for antibiotic optimisation, targeting the causative pathogen with escalation or de-escalation as required. Through this clinically oriented narrative review, we provide expert commentary for empirical and targeted antibiotic choice, including a review of the evidence and recommendations for the treatments of extended-spectrum \u03b2-lactamase-producing, AmpC-hyperproducing and carbapenem-resistant Enterobacterales; carbapenem-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii; and Staphylococcus aureus. In order to improve clinical outcomes, dosing recommendations and pharmacokinetics\/pharmacodynamics specific to ICU patients must be followed, alongside therapeutic drug monitoring.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics11030362","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,8]],"date-time":"2022-03-08T12:35:37Z","timestamp":1646742937000},"page":"362","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":24,"title":["Use of Antimicrobials for Bloodstream Infections in the Intensive Care Unit, a Clinically Oriented Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Alexis","family":"Tabah","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Intensive Care Unit, Redcliffe Hospital, Metro North Hospital and Health Services, Redcliffe, QLD 4020, Australia"},{"name":"School of Clinical Sciences, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD 4000, Australia"},{"name":"Antimicrobial Optimisation Group, UQ Centre for Clinical Research, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4029, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5965-9876","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jeffrey","family":"Lipman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Antimicrobial Optimisation Group, UQ Centre for Clinical Research, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4029, Australia"},{"name":"Jamieson Trauma Institute and Intensive Care Services, Royal Brisbane and Women\u2019s Hospital, Metro North Hospital and Health Services, Brisbane, QLD 4029, Australia"},{"name":"Division of Anaesthesiology Critical Care Emergency and Pain Medicine, N\u00eemes University Hospital, University of Montpellier, 30029 N\u00eemes, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fran\u00e7ois","family":"Barbier","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Intensive Care Unit, CHR Orl\u00e9ans, 45100 Orl\u00e9ans, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Niccol\u00f2","family":"Buetti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IAME, INSERM, Universit\u00e9 de Paris, 75018 Paris, France"},{"name":"Infection Control Program and WHO Collaborating Centre on Patient Safety, Geneva University Hospitals and Faculty of Medicine, Rue Gabrielle-Perret-Gentil 4, 1205 Geneva, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6063-7383","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jean-Fran\u00e7ois","family":"Timsit","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IAME, INSERM, Universit\u00e9 de Paris, 75018 Paris, France"},{"name":"APHP Medical and Infectious Diseases Intensive Care Unit (MI), Bichat-Claude Bernard Hospital, 75018 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"name":"on behalf of the ESCMID Study Group for Infections in Critically Ill Patients\u2014ESGCIP","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1080\/23744235.2020.1727948","article-title":"Defining microbial invasion of the bloodstream: A structured review","volume":"52","author":"Laupland","year":"2020","journal-title":"Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-020-05950-6","article-title":"Bloodstream infections in critically ill patients: An expert statement","volume":"46","author":"Timsit","year":"2020","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ofab434","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofab434","article-title":"Optimizing the Management of Uncomplicated Gram-Negative Bloodstream Infections: Consensus Guidance Using a Modified Delphi Process","volume":"8","author":"Heil","year":"2021","journal-title":"Open Forum Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1457","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2016.2762","article-title":"Immunosuppression and Secondary Infection in Sepsis: Part, Not All, of the Story","volume":"315","author":"Angus","year":"2016","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1469","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2016.2691","article-title":"Incidence, Risk Factors, and Attributable Mortality of Secondary Infections in the Intensive Care Unit After Admission for Sepsis","volume":"315","author":"Spitoni","year":"2016","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1930","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-012-2695-9","article-title":"Characteristics and determinants of outcome of hospital-acquired bloodstream infections in intensive care units: The EUROBACT International Cohort Study","volume":"38","author":"Tabah","year":"2012","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1118","DOI":"10.1086\/500318","article-title":"Excess risk of death from intensive care unit-acquired nosocomial bloodstream infections: A reappraisal","volume":"42","author":"Timsit","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinf.2016.11.001","article-title":"Attributable mortality of ICU-acquired bloodstream infections: Impact of the source, causative micro-organism, resistance profile and antimicrobial therapy","volume":"74","author":"Adrie","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Infect."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1181","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-021-06506-y","article-title":"Surviving sepsis campaign: International guidelines for management of sepsis and septic shock 2021","volume":"47","author":"Evans","year":"2021","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1589","DOI":"10.1097\/01.CCM.0000217961.75225.E9","article-title":"Duration of hypotension before initiation of effective antimicrobial therapy is the critical determinant of survival in human septic shock","volume":"34","author":"Kumar","year":"2006","journal-title":"Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1602","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-017-4782-4","article-title":"Effect of a multifaceted educational intervention for anti-infectious measures on sepsis mortality: A cluster randomized trial","volume":"43","author":"Bloos","year":"2017","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"800","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201703-0621ED","article-title":"Antibiotics for Sepsis: Does Each Hour Really Count, or Is It Incestuous Amplification?","volume":"196","author":"Singer","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"774","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(12)70151-2","article-title":"Aggressive versus conservative initiation of antimicrobial treatment in critically ill surgical patients with suspected intensive-care-unit-acquired infection: A quasi-experimental, before and after observational cohort study","volume":"12","author":"Hranjec","year":"2012","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-020-05929-3","article-title":"Antimicrobial-associated harm in critical care: A narrative review","volume":"46","author":"Arulkumaran","year":"2020","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2017.07.032","article-title":"Utility of prior cultures in predicting antibiotic resistance of bloodstream infections due to Gram-negative pathogens: A multicentre observational cohort study","volume":"24","author":"MacFadden","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"675","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-007-0953-z","article-title":"Systematic surveillance cultures as a tool to predict involvement of multidrug antibiotic resistant bacteria in ventilator-associated pneumonia","volume":"34","author":"Depuydt","year":"2008","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"854","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-020-06022-5","article-title":"Surviving Sepsis Campaign: Guidelines on the management of critically ill adults with Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)","volume":"46","author":"Alhazzani","year":"2020","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-019-05866-w","article-title":"Antimicrobial de-escalation in critically ill patients: A position statement from a task force of the European Society of Intensive Care Medicine (ESICM) and European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ESCMID) Critically Ill Patients Study Group (ESGCIP)","volume":"46","author":"Tabah","year":"2020","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"326","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2018.05.016","article-title":"Impact of antibiotic administration on blood culture positivity at the beginning of sepsis: A prospective clinical cohort study","volume":"25","author":"Scheer","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"964","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2018.03.030","article-title":"Contaminants in blood cultures: Importance, implications, interpretation and prevention","volume":"24","author":"Dargere","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Noster, J., Thelen, P., and Hamprecht, A. (2021). Detection of Multidrug-Resistant Enterobacterales-From ESBLs to Carbapenemases. Antibiotics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics10091140"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"718","DOI":"10.1097\/QCO.0000000000000767","article-title":"Current opinion in management of septic shock due to Gram-negative bacteria","volume":"34","author":"Tabah","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"713","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2019.09.023","article-title":"Rapid microbiological tests for bloodstream infections due to multidrug resistant Gram-negative bacteria: Therapeutic implications","volume":"26","author":"Giacobbe","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01317","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.01329-17","article-title":"Multicenter Evaluation of the Accelerate PhenoTest BC Kit for Rapid Identification and Phenotypic Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing Using Morphokinetic Cellular Analysis","volume":"56","author":"Pancholi","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00709","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.00709-19","article-title":"Systematic Comparison of Four Methods for Detection of Carbapenemase-Producing Enterobacterales Directly from Blood Cultures","volume":"57","author":"Meier","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"e00920","article-title":"NitroSpeed-Carba NP Test for Rapid Detection and Differentiation between Different Classes of Carbapenemases in Enterobacterales","volume":"58","author":"Nordmann","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1009","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/civ1199","article-title":"A Systematic Review of the Definitions, Determinants, and Clinical Outcomes of Antimicrobial De-escalation in the Intensive Care Unit","volume":"62","author":"Tabah","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinf.2016.11.013","article-title":"Empirical mono- versus combination antibiotic therapy in adult intensive care patients with severe sepsis\u2013A systematic review with meta-analysis and trial sequential analysis","volume":"74","author":"Sjovall","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Infect."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1109","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciab295","article-title":"Infectious Diseases Society of America Guidance on the Treatment of Extended-Spectrum beta-lactamase Producing Enterobacterales (ESBL-E), Carbapenem-Resistant Enterobacterales (CRE), and Pseudomonas aeruginosa with Difficult-to-Treat Resistance (DTR-P. aeruginosa)","volume":"72","author":"Tamma","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Paul, M., Carrara, E., Retamar, P., Tangden, T., Bitterman, R., Bonomo, R.A., de Waele, J., Daikos, G.L., Akova, M., and Harbarth, S. (2021). European Society of clinical microbiology and infectious diseases (ESCMID) guidelines for the treatment of infections caused by Multidrug-resistant Gram-negative bacilli (endorsed by ESICM -European Society of intensive care Medicine). Clin. Microbiol. Infect.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2021.11.025"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1186\/s13613-017-0334-x","article-title":"Piperacillin-tazobactam as alternative to carbapenems for ICU patients","volume":"7","author":"Pilmis","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ann. Intensive Care"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"984","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2018.12163","article-title":"Effect of Piperacillin-Tazobactam vs Meropenem on 30-Day Mortality for Patients with E. coli or Klebsiella pneumoniae Bloodstream Infection and Ceftriaxone Resistance: A Randomized Clinical Trial","volume":"320","author":"Harris","year":"2018","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1446","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciz173","article-title":"A Primer on AmpC beta-Lactamases: Necessary Knowledge for an Increasingly Multidrug-resistant World","volume":"69","author":"Tamma","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1289","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.40.5.1289","article-title":"Differences in the resistant variants of Enterobacter cloacae selected by extended-spectrum cephalosporins","volume":"40","author":"Gradelski","year":"1996","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00276-17","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00276-17","article-title":"Piperacillin-Tazobactam versus Other Antibacterial Agents for Treatment of Bloodstream Infections Due to AmpC beta-Lactamase-Producing Enterobacteriaceae","volume":"61","author":"Cheng","year":"2017","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tamma, P.D., Aitken, S.L., Bonomo, R.A., Mathers, A.J., van Duin, D., and Clancy, C.J. (2021). Infectious Diseases Society of America Guidance on the Treatment of AmpC beta-lactamase-Producing Enterobacterales, Carbapenem-Resistant Acinetobacter baumannii, and Stenotrophomonas maltophilia Infections. Clin. Infect. Dis., ciab1013.","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciab1013"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ofab387","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofab387","article-title":"Meropenem Versus Piperacillin-Tazobactam for Definitive Treatment of Bloodstream Infections Caused by AmpC beta-Lactamase-Producing Enterobacter spp., Citrobacter freundii, Morganella morganii, Providencia spp., or Serratia marcescens: A Pilot Multicenter Randomized Controlled Trial (MERINO-2)","volume":"8","author":"Stewart","year":"2021","journal-title":"Open Forum Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Center for Disease Control and Prevention (2021, December 22). Carbapenem-Resistant Enterobacterales (CRE): CRE Technical Information, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/hai\/organisms\/cre\/technical-info.html#Definition."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(19)30755-8","article-title":"Molecular and clinical epidemiology of carbapenem-resistant Enterobacterales in the USA (CRACKLE-2): A prospective cohort study","volume":"20","author":"Arias","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/cix783","article-title":"Colistin Versus Ceftazidime-Avibactam in the Treatment of Infections Due to Carbapenem-Resistant Enterobacteriaceae","volume":"66","author":"Lok","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1664","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciab176","article-title":"Ceftazidime-Avibactam Use for Klebsiella pneumoniae Carbapenemase-Producing K. pneumoniae Infections: A Retrospective Observational Multicenter Study","volume":"73","author":"Tumbarello","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00817","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00883-17","article-title":"Ceftazidime-avibactam is superior to other treatment regimens against carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae bacteremia","volume":"61","author":"Shields","year":"2017","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1007\/s40121-018-0214-1","article-title":"Effect and Safety of Meropenem-Vaborbactam versus Best-Available Therapy in Patients with Carbapenem-Resistant Enterobacteriaceae Infections: The TANGO II Randomized Clinical Trial","volume":"7","author":"Wunderink","year":"2018","journal-title":"Infect. Dis. Ther."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(20)30796-9","article-title":"Efficacy and safety of cefiderocol or best available therapy for the treatment of serious infections caused by carbapenem-resistant Gram-negative bacteria (CREDIBLE-CR): A randomised, open-label, multicentre, pathogen-focused, descriptive, phase 3 trial","volume":"21","author":"Bassetti","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1099","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciz1159","article-title":"Aztreonam Combination Therapy: An Answer to Metallo-beta-Lactamase-Producing Gram-Negative Bacteria?","volume":"71","author":"Shields","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1871","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciaa586","article-title":"Efficacy of Ceftazidime-avibactam Plus Aztreonam in Patients with Bloodstream Infections Caused by Metallo-\u03b2-lactamase-Producing Enterobacterales","volume":"72","author":"Falcone","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Timsit, J.-F., Wicky, P.-H., and de Montmollin, E. (2022). Treatment of Severe Infections Due to Metallo-Betalactamases Enterobacterales in Critically Ill Patients. Antibiotics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics11020144"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"726","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(17)30228-1","article-title":"Effect of appropriate combination therapy on mortality of patients with bloodstream infections due to carbapenemase-producing Enterobacteriaceae (INCREMENT): A retrospective cohort study","volume":"17","author":"Salamanca","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"951","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2019.03.014","article-title":"Carbapenem-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii: In pursuit of an effective treatment","volume":"25","author":"Piperaki","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2015.02.022","article-title":"Ceftazidime\/avibactam tested against Gram-negative bacteria from intensive care unit (ICU) and non-ICU patients, including those with ventilator-associated pneumonia","volume":"46","author":"Sader","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(18)30099-9","article-title":"Colistin alone versus colistin plus meropenem for treatment of severe infections caused by carbapenem-resistant Gram-negative bacteria: An open-label, randomised controlled trial","volume":"18","author":"Paul","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1369","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkn128","article-title":"Ampicillin\/sulbactam compared with polymyxins for the treatment of infections caused by carbapenem-resistant Acinetobacter spp.","volume":"61","author":"Oliveira","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1002\/phar.2209","article-title":"International Consensus Guidelines for the Optimal Use of the Polymyxins: Endorsed by the American College of Clinical Pharmacy (ACCP), European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ESCMID), Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA), International Society for Anti-infective Pharmacology (ISAP), Society of Critical Care Medicine (SCCM), and Society of Infectious Diseases Pharmacists (SIDP)","volume":"39","author":"Tsuji","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pharmacotherapy"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2014.07.014","article-title":"High-dose tigecycline-associated alterations in coagulation parameters in critically ill patients with severe infections","volume":"45","author":"Routsi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.49.1.220-229.2005","article-title":"Pharmacokinetics of tigecycline after single and multiple doses in healthy subjects","volume":"49","author":"Muralidharan","year":"2005","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01268-16","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.01268-16","article-title":"High-Dose Ampicillin-Sulbactam Combinations Combat Polymyxin-Resistant Acinetobacter baumannii in a Hollow-Fiber Infection Model","volume":"61","author":"Lenhard","year":"2017","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"566","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciz257","article-title":"Defining the Breakpoint Duration of Staphylococcus aureus Bacteremia Predictive of Poor Outcomes","volume":"70","author":"Minejima","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R87","DOI":"10.1186\/cc13854","article-title":"Time from admission to initiation of surgery for source control is a critical determinant of survival in patients with gastrointestinal perforation with associated septic shock","volume":"18","author":"Azuhata","year":"2014","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1186\/s13017-017-0132-7","article-title":"Management of intra-abdominal infections: Recommendations by the WSES 2016 consensus conference","volume":"12","author":"Sartelli","year":"2017","journal-title":"World J. Emerg. Surg."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-019-05520-5","article-title":"Rationalizing antimicrobial therapy in the ICU: A narrative review","volume":"45","author":"Timsit","year":"2019","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1072","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciu027","article-title":"DALI: Defining antibiotic levels in intensive care unit patients: Are current beta-lactam antibiotic doses sufficient for critically ill patients?","volume":"58","author":"Roberts","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1097\/FTD.0000000000000941","article-title":"Therapeutic Drug Monitoring of Antibiotic Drugs in Patients Receiving Continuous Renal Replacement Therapy or Intermittent Hemodialysis: A Critical Review","volume":"44","author":"Matusik","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ther. Drug Monit."},{"key":"ref_63","first-page":"429","article-title":"\u03b2-Lactam pharmacodynamics in Gram-negative bloodstream infections in the critically ill","volume":"75","author":"Wong","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"498","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(14)70036-2","article-title":"Individualised antibiotic dosing for patients who are critically ill: Challenges and potential solutions","volume":"14","author":"Roberts","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"681","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201601-0024OC","article-title":"Continuous versus Intermittent beta-Lactam Infusion in Severe Sepsis. A Meta-analysis of Individual Patient Data from Randomized Trials","volume":"194","author":"Roberts","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_66","first-page":"3178","article-title":"Therapeutic drug monitoring of the beta-lactam antibiotics: What is the evidence and which patients should we be using it for?","volume":"70","author":"Huttner","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Curran, J., Lo, J., Leung, V., Brown, K., Schwartz, K.L., Daneman, N., Garber, G., Wu, J.H.C., and Langford, B.J. (2021). Estimating daily antibiotic harms: An umbrella review with individual study meta-analysis. Clin. Microbiol. Infect.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2021.10.022"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2160","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2020.6348","article-title":"Effect of C-Reactive Protein-Guided Antibiotic Treatment Duration, 7-Day Treatment, or 14-Day Treatment on 30-Day Clinical Failure Rate in Patients with Uncomplicated Gram-Negative Bacteremia: A Randomized Clinical Trial","volume":"323","author":"Albrich","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1091","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciy1054","article-title":"Seven Versus 14 Days of Antibiotic Therapy for Uncomplicated Gram-negative Bacteremia: A Noninferiority Randomized Controlled Trial","volume":"69","author":"Yahav","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Molina, J., Montero-Mateos, E., Praena-Segovia, J., Leon-Jimenez, E., Natera, C., Lopez-Cortes, L.E., Valiente, L., Rosso-Fernandez, C.M., Herrero, M., and Aller-Garcia, A.I. (2021). Seven-versus 14-day course of antibiotics for the treatment of bloodstream infections by Enterobacterales: A randomized, controlled trial. Clin. Microbiol. Infect.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2021.12.008"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"388","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciy917","article-title":"Procalcitonin-guided Antibiotic Treatment in Patients with Positive Blood Cultures: A Patient-level Meta-analysis of Randomized Trials","volume":"69","author":"Meier","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1097\/QCO.0000000000000689","article-title":"Duration of antimicrobial therapy for Gram-negative infections","volume":"33","author":"Timsit","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1047","DOI":"10.1007\/s15010-019-01339-w","article-title":"Is a single set of negative blood cultures sufficient to ensure clearance of bloodstream infection in patients with Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia? The skip phenomenon","volume":"47","author":"Fiala","year":"2019","journal-title":"Infection"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1409","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(20)30447-3","article-title":"Defining persistent Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia: Secondary analysis of a prospective cohort study","volume":"20","author":"Kuehl","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra1301635","article-title":"Brain abscess","volume":"371","author":"Brouwer","year":"2014","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e18","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciq146","article-title":"Clinical practice guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America for the treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections in adults and children","volume":"52","author":"Liu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"789","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-019-05599-w","article-title":"ESICM\/ESCMID task force on practical management of invasive candidiasis in critically ill patients","volume":"45","author":"Antonelli","year":"2019","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ofaa246","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofaa246","article-title":"Optimal Treatment Duration of Pseudomonas aeruginosa Infections in Allogeneic Hematopoietic Cell Transplant Recipients","volume":"7","author":"Olearo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Open Forum Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2011","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciz223","article-title":"Antibiotic Therapy for Pseudomonas aeruginosa Bloodstream Infections: How Long Is Long Enough?","volume":"69","author":"Fabre","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1591","DOI":"10.1007\/s40121-021-00464-0","article-title":"Short-Course Versus Long-Course Systemic Antibiotic Treatment for Uncomplicated Intravascular Catheter-Related Bloodstream Infections due to Gram-Negative Bacteria, Enterococci or Coagulase-Negative Staphylococci: A Systematic Review","volume":"10","author":"Muff","year":"2021","journal-title":"Infect. Dis. Ther."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1186\/s13756-019-0474-x","article-title":"Catheter-related bloodstream infections with coagulase-negative staphylococci: Are antibiotics necessary if the catheter is removed?","volume":"8","author":"Hebeisen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Resist. Infect. Control."}],"container-title":["Antibiotics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6382\/11\/3\/362\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:34:00Z","timestamp":1760135640000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6382\/11\/3\/362"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,8]]},"references-count":81,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3]]}},"alternative-id":["antibiotics11030362"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/antibiotics11030362","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-6382"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-6382","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,8]]}}}