{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,13]],"date-time":"2026-03-13T11:49:50Z","timestamp":1773402590311,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,24]],"date-time":"2022-03-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1648080000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Antibiotics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The multiplex PCR is a powerful and efficient tool that was widely used during the COVID-19 pandemic to diagnose SARS-CoV-2 infections and that has applications for bacterial identification, as well as determining bacterial resistance to antibiotics. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the usability of multiplex PCR, especially in patients self-medicated with antibiotics, where bacterial cultures often give false-negative results. A cross-sectional study was developed in two COVID-19 units, where 489 eligible patients were included as antibiotic takers and non-antibiotic takers. Antibiotic takers used mostly over-the-counter medication; they suffered significantly more chronic respiratory conditions and were self-medicated most often with cephalosporins (41.4%), macrolide (23.2%), and penicillin (19.7%). The disease severity in these patients was significantly higher than in non-antibiotic takers, and bacterial superinfections were the most common finding in the same group (63.6%). Antibiotic takers had longer hospital and ICU admissions, although the mortality rate was not significantly higher than in non-antibiotic takers. The most common bacteria involved in secondary infections were Staphylococcus aureus (22.2%), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (27.8%), and Klebsiellaspp (25.0%). Patients self-medicating with antibiotics had significantly higher rates of multidrug resistance. The multiplex PCR test was more accurate in identifying multidrug resistance and resulted in a quicker initiation of therapeutic antibiotics compared with instances where a bacterial culture was initially performed, with an average of 26.8 h vs. 40.4 h, respectively. The hospital stay was also significantly shorter by an average of 2.5 days when PCR was used as an initial assessment tool for secondary bacterial infections. When adjusted for age, COVID-19 severity, and pulmonary disease, over-the-counter use of antibiotics represented a significant independent risk factor for a prolonged hospitalization (AOR = 1.21). Similar findings were observed for smoking status (AOR = 1.44), bacterial superinfection (AOR = 1.52), performing only a conventional bacterial culture (AOR = 1.17), and a duration of more than 48 h for bacterial sampling from the time of hospital admission (AOR = 1.36). Multiplex PCR may be a very effective method for diagnosing secondary bacterial infections in COVID-19 individuals self-medicating with antibiotics. Utilizing this strategy as an initial screen in COVID-19 patients who exhibit signs of sepsis and clinical deterioration will result in a faster recovery time and a shorter period of hospitalization.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics11040437","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,25]],"date-time":"2022-03-25T00:05:18Z","timestamp":1648166718000},"page":"437","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":22,"title":["The Impact of Multiplex PCR in Diagnosing and Managing Bacterial Infections in COVID-19 Patients Self-Medicated with Antibiotics"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9234-5767","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Iulia","family":"Bogdan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Methodological and Infectious Diseases Research Center, Department of Infectious Diseases, \u201cVictor Babes\u201d University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Eftimie Murgu Square 2, 300041 Timisoara, Romania"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3730-6527","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cosmin","family":"Citu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Methodological and Infectious Diseases Research Center, Department of Infectious Diseases, \u201cVictor Babes\u201d University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Eftimie Murgu Square 2, 300041 Timisoara, Romania"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4711-4315","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Felix","family":"Bratosin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Methodological and Infectious Diseases Research Center, Department of Infectious Diseases, \u201cVictor Babes\u201d University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Eftimie Murgu Square 2, 300041 Timisoara, Romania"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Daniel","family":"Malita","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiology, \u201cVictor Babes\u201d University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Eftimie Murgu Square 2, 300041 Timisoara, Romania"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ioan","family":"Romosan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, \u201cVictor Babes\u201d University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Eftimie Murgu Square 2, 300041 Timisoara, Romania"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Camelia Vidita","family":"Gurban","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Methodological and Infectious Diseases Research Center, Department of Infectious Diseases, \u201cVictor Babes\u201d University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Eftimie Murgu Square 2, 300041 Timisoara, Romania"},{"name":"Department of Biochemistry, \u201cVictor Babes\u201d University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Eftimie Murgu Square 2, 300041 Timisoara, Romania"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0287-5938","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Adrian Vasile","family":"Bota","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Methodological and Infectious Diseases Research Center, Department of Infectious Diseases, \u201cVictor Babes\u201d University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Eftimie Murgu Square 2, 300041 Timisoara, Romania"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mirela","family":"Turaiche","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Methodological and Infectious Diseases Research Center, Department of Infectious Diseases, \u201cVictor Babes\u201d University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Eftimie Murgu Square 2, 300041 Timisoara, Romania"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Melania Lavinia","family":"Bratu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Methodological and Infectious Diseases Research Center, Department of Infectious Diseases, \u201cVictor Babes\u201d University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Eftimie Murgu Square 2, 300041 Timisoara, Romania"},{"name":"Department of Psychology, \u201cVictor Babes\u201d University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Eftimie Murgu Square 2, 300041 Timisoara, Romania"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ciprian Nicolae","family":"Pilut","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Methodological and Infectious Diseases Research Center, Department of Infectious Diseases, \u201cVictor Babes\u201d University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Eftimie Murgu Square 2, 300041 Timisoara, Romania"},{"name":"Multidisciplinary Research Center on Antimicrobial Resistance (MULTI-REZ), Microbiology Department, \u201cVictor Babes\u201d University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Eftimie Murgu Square 2, 300041 Timisoara, Romania"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Iosif","family":"Marincu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Methodological and Infectious Diseases Research Center, Department of Infectious Diseases, \u201cVictor Babes\u201d University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Eftimie Murgu Square 2, 300041 Timisoara, Romania"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u015eahin, \u015e., Boado-Penas, M.d.C., Constantinescu, C., Eisenberg, J., Henshaw, K., Hu, M., Wang, J., and Zhu, W. 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