{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,30]],"date-time":"2026-10-30T05:48:44Z","timestamp":1793339324723,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":56,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,20]],"date-time":"2022-11-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1668902400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Tertiary Education Trust Fund, Nigeria","award":["TETFund\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["TETFund\/2020"]}]},{"name":"Tertiary Education Trust Fund, Nigeria","award":["2019\/8\/BAU"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2019\/8\/BAU"]}]},{"name":"Bangladesh Agricultural University Research System (BAURES)","award":["TETFund\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["TETFund\/2020"]}]},{"name":"Bangladesh Agricultural University Research System (BAURES)","award":["2019\/8\/BAU"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2019\/8\/BAU"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Antibiotics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The eradication of staphylococcal infections has become more difficult due to the development of antibiotic resistance and virulence in biofilm-forming Staphylococcus aureus. The presence of the life-threatening zoonotic pathogen, methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA), in foods indicates a public health issue. This study, therefore, aimed to determine virulence factors and methicillin resistance in biofilm-forming S. aureus isolates from different foods and food handlers. A total of 100 PCR-positive S. aureus isolates (97 biofilm formers and three non-biofilm formers) were screened using the disk diffusion method and PCR assay. By PCR, genes encoding virulence factors, e.g., enterotoxin (sea, 30%, 95% CI: 21.90\u201339.59%), toxic shock syndrome toxin (tst, 20%, 95% CI: 13.34\u201328.88%), and Panton\u2013Valentine leukocidin toxin (PVL, 15%, 95% CI: 9.31\u201323.28%), were detected in the S. aureus isolates. By the disk diffusion method, 100% (95% CI: 96.30\u2013100.00%) of S. aureus isolates were phenotypically MRSA in nature, showing 100% resistance to oxacillin and cefoxitin. Moreover, the methicillin-resistant gene mecA was found in 61 (61%, 95% CI: 51.20\u201369.98%) MRSA isolates. Furthermore, all the S. aureus isolates were phenotypically resistant to ampicillin and penicillin, 30% to erythromycin, and 11% to gentamycin. Among them, 51% (95% CI: 41.35\u201360.58%) of S. aureus isolates were phenotypically multidrug-resistant in nature, and the multiple antibiotic resistance index varied from 0.33 to 0.55. Genes encoding resistance to beta-lactams (blaZ, 100%, 95% CI: 96.30\u2013100.00%) and tetracyclines (tetA and tetC, 3%, 95% CI: 0.82\u20138.45%) were found positive in the S. aureus isolates. Genes encoding virulence determinants and MRSA were significantly (p &lt; 0.05) higher in strong biofilm-forming S. aureus than in moderate and non-biofilm-forming isolates. To our knowledge, this is the first study in Bangladesh to incorporate preliminary data on the occurrence of virulence determinants and methicillin resistance, including resistance to clinically important antibiotics, in biofilm-forming S. aureus isolates from different foods and food handlers in Bangladesh, emphasizing a potential threat to human health.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics11111666","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,21]],"date-time":"2022-11-21T03:07:23Z","timestamp":1669000043000},"page":"1666","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":21,"title":["Virulence Determinants and Methicillin Resistance in Biofilm-Forming Staphylococcus aureus from Various Food Sources in Bangladesh"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Fatimah Muhammad","family":"Ballah","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology and Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh 2202, Bangladesh"},{"name":"Department of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto 840004, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6870-4595","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Md. Saiful","family":"Islam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology and Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh 2202, Bangladesh"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1400-1250","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Md. Liton","family":"Rana","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology and Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh 2202, Bangladesh"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Md. Ashek","family":"Ullah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology and Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh 2202, Bangladesh"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9700-5558","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Farhana Binte","family":"Ferdous","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology and Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh 2202, Bangladesh"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fahim Haque","family":"Neloy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology and Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh 2202, Bangladesh"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Samina","family":"Ievy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology and Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh 2202, Bangladesh"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2457-6162","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Md. Abdus","family":"Sobur","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology and Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh 2202, Bangladesh"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"AMM Taufiquer","family":"Rahman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Naogaon District Hospital, Naogaon 6500, Bangladesh"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5561-3643","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mst. Minara","family":"Khatun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology and Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh 2202, Bangladesh"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marzia","family":"Rahman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology and Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh 2202, Bangladesh"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5432-480X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Md. Tanvir","family":"Rahman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology and Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh 2202, Bangladesh"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rahman, M., Sobur, M., Islam, M., Ievy, S., Hossain, M., El Zowalaty, M.E., Rahman, A.M.M., and Ashour, H.M. (2020). Zoonotic diseases: Etiology, impact, and control. Microorganisms, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms8091405"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.5455\/javar.2021.h512","article-title":"Antibiotic resistance patterns of Staphylococcus spp. Isolated from fast foods sold in different restaurants of Mymensingh","volume":"8","author":"Urmi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Bangladesh. J. Adv. Vet. Anim. Res."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1751","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins2071751","article-title":"Food poisoning and Staphylococcus aureus enterotoxins","volume":"2","author":"Mendoza","year":"2010","journal-title":"Toxins"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oliveira, D., Borges, A., and Sim\u00f5es, M. (2018). Staphylococcus aureus toxins and their molecular activity in infectious diseases. Toxins, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins10060252"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jain, V.K., Singh, M., Joshi, V.G., Chhabra, R., Singh, K., and Rana, Y.S. (2022). Virulence and antimicrobial resistance gene profiles of Staphylococcus aureus associated with clinical mastitis in cattle. PLoS ONE, 17.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0264762"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1007\/s12178-018-9501-4","article-title":"Staphylococcus aureus evasion of host immunity in the setting of Prosthetic Joint Infection: Biofilm and beyond","volume":"11","author":"Ricciardi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Rev. Musculoskelet. Med."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1636","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2018.01636","article-title":"Microbial extracellular polymeric substances: Ecological function and impact on soil aggregation","volume":"9","author":"Costa","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1387","DOI":"10.1086\/322972","article-title":"Biofilm Formation: A Clinically Relevant Microbiological Process","volume":"33","author":"Donlan","year":"2001","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01039","DOI":"10.1016\/j.idcr.2020.e01039","article-title":"An overlooked cause of septic shock: Staphylococcal Toxic Shock Syndrome secondary to an axillary abscess","volume":"23","author":"Poudel","year":"2021","journal-title":"IDCases"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1507","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-0691.2011.03534.x","article-title":"Virulence factors and genotypes of Staphylococcus aureus from infection and carriage in Gabon","volume":"17","author":"Schaumburg","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5963","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sjbs.2021.06.053","article-title":"Migratory birds travelling to Bangladesh are potential carriers of multi-drug resistant Enterococcus spp., Salmonella spp., and Vibrio spp.","volume":"28","author":"Islam","year":"2021","journal-title":"Saudi J. Bio. Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"942","DOI":"10.1007\/s00248-021-01803-x","article-title":"Detection of blaTEM, blaCTXM-M, blaCMY, and blaSHV Genes Among Extended-Spectrum Beta-Lactamase-Producing Escherichia coli Isolated from Migratory Birds Travelling to Bangladesh","volume":"83","author":"Islam","year":"2022","journal-title":"Microb. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ievy, S., Islam, M., Sobur, M., Talukder, M., Rahman, M., and Khan, M.F.R. (2020). Molecular detection of avian pathogenic Escherichia coli (APEC) for the first time in layer farms in Bangladesh and their antibiotic resistance patterns. Microorganisms, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms8071021"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"629","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(21)02724-0","article-title":"Global burden of bacterial antimicrobial resistance in 2019: A systematic analysis","volume":"399","author":"Murray","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1002\/vms3.669","article-title":"Molecular detection and antibiotyping of multi-drug resistant Enterococcus faecium from healthy broiler chickens in Bangladesh","volume":"8","author":"Roy","year":"2022","journal-title":"Vet. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.5455\/jabet.2021.d125","article-title":"Detection of multidrug resistant Salmonella spp. From healthy and diseased broilers having potential public health significance","volume":"4","author":"Talukder","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Adv. Biotechnol. Exp. Ther."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"735494","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2021.735494","article-title":"Methicillin-and vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus from humans and ready-to-eat meat: Characterization of antimicrobial resistance and biofilm formation ability","volume":"12","author":"Saber","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1763","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.298.15.1763","article-title":"Invasive methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections in the United States","volume":"298","author":"Klevens","year":"2007","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"615","article-title":"Exploring poultry farm environment for antibiotic resistant Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp., and Staphylococcus spp. having public health significance","volume":"18","author":"Hossain","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Bangladesh Agric. Univ."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1089\/mdr.2005.11.205","article-title":"Genetic analysis of mecA homologues in Staphylococcus sciuri strains derived from mastitis in dairy cattle","volume":"11","author":"Rahman","year":"2005","journal-title":"Microb. Drug Resist."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4657396","DOI":"10.1155\/2018\/4657396","article-title":"Biofilm formation by Methicillin-resistant and Methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus strains from hospitalized patients in Poland","volume":"2018","author":"Piechota","year":"2018","journal-title":"BioMed Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00946","DOI":"10.1002\/mbo3.946","article-title":"Biofilm formation and prevalence of adhesion genes among Staphylococcus aureus isolates from different food sources","volume":"9","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Microbiologyopen"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2681","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2019.02681","article-title":"Antimicrobial Resistance and Virulence Gene Profiles of Methicillin-Resistant and -Susceptible Staphylococcus aureus from Food Products in Denmark","volume":"10","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2019.00503","article-title":"Occurrence and characterization of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus in processed raw foods and ready-to-eat foods in an urban setting of a developing country","volume":"10","author":"Islam","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.5001\/omj.2015.56","article-title":"Prevalence of enterotoxin genes and antibacterial susceptibility pattern of Staphylococcus aureus strains isolated from animal originated foods in West of Iran","volume":"30","author":"Mashouf","year":"2015","journal-title":"Oman Med. J."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Puah, S.M., Chua, K.H., and Tan, J.A.M.A. (2016). Virulence Factors and Antibiotic Susceptibility of Staphylococcus aureus Isolates in Ready-to-Eat Foods: Detection of S. aureus Contamination and a High Prevalence of Virulence Genes. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph13020199"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"714","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2017.00714","article-title":"Prevalence, virulence genes, antimicrobial susceptibility, and genetic diversity of Staphylococcus aureus from retail aquatic products in China","volume":"8","author":"Rong","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2018.00197","article-title":"Multilocus Sequence Typing and Virulence-Associated Gene Profile Analysis of Staphylococcus aureus Isolates from Retail Ready-to-Eat Food in China","volume":"9","author":"Yang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"1048097","article-title":"Genetic diversity and virulence factors of S. aureus isolated from food, humans, and animals","volume":"2020","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1436","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2021.652276","article-title":"Molecular Characteristics of Staphylococcus aureus From Food Samples and Food Poisoning Outbreaks in Shijiazhuang, China","volume":"12","author":"Lv","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2005.02.012","article-title":"Pattern of enterotoxin genes seg, seh, sei and sej positive Staphylococcus aureus isolated from bovine mastitis","volume":"108","author":"Kloppert","year":"2005","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1089\/fpd.2013.1643","article-title":"Antimicrobial susceptibility and molecular typing of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in retail foods in Shaanxi, China","volume":"11","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Foodborne Pathog. Dis."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S269","DOI":"10.1086\/430788","article-title":"Community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus","volume":"41","author":"Weber","year":"2005","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2013.09.062","article-title":"Food handler-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in public hospitals in Salvador, Brazil","volume":"37","author":"Ferreira","year":"2014","journal-title":"Food Control"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"816","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2016.00816","article-title":"Prevalence of Staphylococcus aureus and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in retail ready-to-eat foods in China","volume":"7","author":"Yang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.3126\/njb.v7i1.26958","article-title":"Vancomycin Intermediate MRSA Isolates Obtained from Retail Chicken Meat and Eggs Collected at Pokhara, Nepal","volume":"7","author":"Devkota","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nepal J. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1116","DOI":"10.1007\/s13197-019-03572-5","article-title":"Virulent methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in street vended foods","volume":"56","author":"Sivakumar","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109165","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2021.109165","article-title":"Multidrug-, methicillin-, and vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolated from ready-to-eat meat sandwiches: An ongoing food and public health concern","volume":"346","author":"Mahros","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1128\/aem.46.1.165-170.1983","article-title":"Multiple antibiotic resistance indexing of Escherichia coli to identify high-risk sources of fecal contamination of foods","volume":"46","author":"Krumperman","year":"1983","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2020.00107","article-title":"Prevalence and therapies of antibiotic-resistance in Staphylococcus aureus","volume":"10","author":"Guo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1038\/nrd1008","article-title":"Understanding biofilm resistance to antibacterial agents","volume":"2","author":"Davies","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Drug Discov."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1007\/s12223-021-00922-9","article-title":"Higher seasonal temperature enhances the occurrence of methicillin resistance of Staphylococcus aureus in house flies (Musca domestica) under hospital and environmental settings","volume":"67","author":"Sobur","year":"2022","journal-title":"Folia Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.44.2.231-238.2000","article-title":"Correlation between the resistance genotype determined by multiplex PCR assays and the antibiotic susceptibility patterns of Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis","volume":"44","author":"Martineau","year":"2000","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ballah, F.M., Islam, M.S., Rana, M.L., Ferdous, F.B., Ahmed, R., Pramanik, P.K., Karmoker, J., Ievy, S., Sobur, M.A., and Siddique, M.P. (2022). Phenotypic and Genotypic Detection of Biofilm-Forming Staphylococcus aureus from Different Food Sources in Bangladesh. Biology, 11.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202206.0196.v1"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6489","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.69.11.6489-6494.2003","article-title":"Methicillin (oxacillin)-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains isolated from major food animals and their potential transmission to humans","volume":"69","author":"Lee","year":"2003","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkh070","article-title":"Antibiotic resistance genes, integrons and multiple antibiotic resistance in thirty-five serotypes of Salmonella enterica isolated from humans and animals in the UK","volume":"53","author":"Randall","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1006\/mcpr.2001.0363","article-title":"Multiplex PCR for the detection of tetracycline resistant genes","volume":"15","author":"Ng","year":"2001","journal-title":"Mol. Cell. Probes"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1460","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.47.4.1460-1463.2003","article-title":"mecA-blaZ corepressors in clinical Staphylococcus aureus isolates","volume":"47","author":"Rosato","year":"2003","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2548","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.36.9.2548-2553.1998","article-title":"Rapid and Specific Detection of Toxigenic Staphylococcus aureus: Use of Two Multiplex PCR Enzyme Immunoassays for Amplification and Hybridization of Staphylococcal Enterotoxin Genes, Exfoliative Toxin Genes, and Toxic Shock Syndrome Toxin 1 Gene","volume":"36","author":"Becker","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"1128","article-title":"Involvement of panton-valentine leukocidin\u2014Producing Staphylococcus aureus in primary skin infections and pneumonia","volume":"29","author":"Lina","year":"1999","journal-title":"Genet. Mol. Res."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Islam, M.S., Nayeem, M.M.H., Sobur, M.A., Ievy, S., Islam, M.A., Rahman, S., Kafi, M.A., Ashour, H.M., and Rahman, M.T. (2021). Virulence determinants and multidrug resistance of Escherichia coli isolated from migratory birds. Antibiotics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics10020190"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tawyabur, M., Islam, M., Sobur, M., Hossain, M., Mahmud, M., Paul, S., Hossain, M.T., Ashour, H.M., and Rahman, M. (2020). Isolation and characterization of multidrug-resistant Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp. from healthy and diseased turkeys. Antibiotics, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics9110770"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcp\/45.4_ts.493","article-title":"Antibiotic susceptibility testing by a standardized single disc method","volume":"45","author":"Bayer","year":"1966","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"CLSI (2020). Performance Standards for Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing, Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. [30th ed.]. CLSI Supplement M100s."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1460","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dky043","article-title":"Applying definitions for multidrug resistance, extensive drug resistance and pandrug resistance to clinically significant livestock and companion animal bacterial pathogens","volume":"73","author":"Sweeney","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1214\/ss\/1009213286","article-title":"Interval estimation for a binomial proportion","volume":"16","author":"Brown","year":"2001","journal-title":"Stat. Sci."}],"container-title":["Antibiotics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6382\/11\/11\/1666\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:22:23Z","timestamp":1760145743000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6382\/11\/11\/1666"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,20]]},"references-count":56,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11]]}},"alternative-id":["antibiotics11111666"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/antibiotics11111666","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-6382"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-6382","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,20]]}}}