{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,31]],"date-time":"2026-10-31T05:39:04Z","timestamp":1793425144606,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":87,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,7]],"date-time":"2022-12-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1670371200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Antibiotics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The outcome for critically ill patients is burdened by a double mortality rate and a longer hospital stay in the case of sepsis or septic shock. The adequate use of antibiotics may impact on the outcome since they may affect the pharmacokinetics (Pk) and pharmacodynamics (Pd) of antibiotics in such patients. Acute renal failure (ARF) occurs in about 50% of septic patients, and the consequent need for continuous renal replacement therapy (CRRT) makes the renal elimination rate of most antibiotics highly variable. Antibiotics doses should be reduced in patients experiencing ARF, in accordance with the glomerular filtration rate (GFR), whereas posology should be increased in the case of CRRT. Since different settings of CRRT may be used, identifying a standard dosage of antibiotics is very difficult, because there is a risk of both oversimplification and failing the therapeutic efficacy. Indeed, it has been seen that, in over 25% of cases, the antibiotic therapy does not reach the necessary concentration target mainly due to lack of the proper minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) achievement. The aim of this narrative review is to clarify whether shared algorithms exist, allowing them to inform the daily practice in the proper antibiotics posology for critically ill patients undergoing CRRT.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics11121769","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,8]],"date-time":"2022-12-08T01:44:31Z","timestamp":1670463871000},"page":"1769","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["Antibiotic Therapy in the Critically Ill with Acute Renal Failure and Renal Replacement Therapy: A Narrative Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Alberto","family":"Corona","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Accident & Emergency and Anaesthesia and Intensive Care Medicine Department, Esine and Edolo Hospitals, ASST Valcamonica, 25040 Brescia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1512-6530","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dario","family":"Cattaneo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Clinical Pharmacology, ASST Fatebenefratelli Sacco University Hospital, 20157 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nicola","family":"Latronico","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University Department of Medical and Surgical Specialties, Radiological Sciences and Public Health, University of Brescia, 25100 Brescia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1995.03530080055041","article-title":"EPIC international Advisory Committee. The prevalence of nosocomial infection in intensive care units in Europe: Results of the European Prevalence of Infection in Intensive Care (EPIC) study","volume":"274","author":"Vincent","year":"1995","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2323","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2009.1754","article-title":"International Study of the Prevalence and Outcomes of Infection in Intensive Care Units","volume":"302","author":"Vincent","year":"2009","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.1097\/00075198-200212000-00005","article-title":"Developing a consensus classification system for acute renal failure","volume":"8","author":"Kellum","year":"2002","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2310","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2011.08.014","article-title":"Can novel biomarkers complement best possible clinical assessment for early acute kidney injury diagnosis?","volume":"58","author":"Haase","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1080\/00365510802144813","article-title":"Acute kidney injury: Epidemiology and assessment","volume":"68","author":"Kellum","year":"2008","journal-title":"Scand. J. Clin. Lab. Investig."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1159\/000490119","article-title":"Risk prediction models for Acute Kidney Injury in Crically Ill Patients: Opus in Progressu","volume":"140","author":"Neyra","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nephron"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1837","DOI":"10.1097\/01.CCM.0000277041.13090.0A","article-title":"Acute kidney injury in the intensive care unit according to RIFLE","volume":"35","author":"Ostermann","year":"2007","journal-title":"Crit. Care. Med."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12483","DOI":"10.1111\/micc.12483","article-title":"Sepsis-induced acute kidney injury: A disease of the microcirculation","volume":"26","author":"Ma","year":"2019","journal-title":"Microcirculation"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"997","DOI":"10.2165\/00003088-200746120-00003","article-title":"Pharmacokinetic considerations for antimicrobial therapy in patients receiving renal replacement therapy","volume":"46","author":"Pea","year":"2007","journal-title":"Clin. Pharmacokinet."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.1111\/sdi.12496","article-title":"We underdose antibiotics in patients on CRRT","volume":"29","author":"Shaw","year":"2016","journal-title":"Semin. Dial."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"344","DOI":"10.1097\/01.CCM.0000194725.48928.3A","article-title":"Sepsis Occurrence in Acutely Ill Patients Investigators. Sepsis in European intensive care units: Results of the SOAP study","volume":"34","author":"Vincent","year":"2006","journal-title":"Crit. Care. Med."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Viaggi, B., and Tascini, C. (2015). L\u2019uso dei Farmaci Antimicrobici in Terapia Intensiva, Percorsi Editoriali."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-014-0480-6","article-title":"Antibiotic stewardship in the intensive care unit","volume":"18","author":"Luyt","year":"2014","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Bennett, J.E., Dolin, R., and Blaser, M.J. (2020). Mandell, Douglas and Bennet\u2019s Principles of Infectious Diseases, Elsevier\u2014Health Science Division. [11th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Terreni, M., Taccani, M., and Pregnolato, M. (2021). New Antibiotics for Multidrug-Resistant Bacterial Strains: Latest Research Developments and Future Perspectives. Molecules, 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules26092671"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1097\/QCO.0000000000000811","article-title":"How to use new antibiotics in the therapy of ventilator-associated pneumonia","volume":"35","author":"Miwa","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0031-1275534","article-title":"Antibiotic stewardship in the intensive care unit","volume":"32","author":"Arnold","year":"2011","journal-title":"Semin. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3916","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.01751-13","article-title":"Antimicrobial stewardship programs","volume":"51","author":"Leuthner","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/39.4.527","article-title":"Indications for antibiotic use in ICU 11-patients: A one-year prospective surveillance","volume":"39","author":"Bergmans","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.7326\/0003-4819-134-4-200102200-00014","article-title":"Antibiotic resistance in the intensive care unit","volume":"134","author":"Kollef","year":"2001","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S23","DOI":"10.2146\/090087d","article-title":"Rational dosing of antimicrobial agents: Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamics strategies","volume":"66","author":"Owens","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Health-Syst. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"425","article-title":"Pharmacokinetics of antibiotics in Continuous Renal Replacement Therapies (CRRT). G","volume":"29","author":"Morabito","year":"2012","journal-title":"ItalNefrol"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ronco, C., and Bellomo, R. (1998). Basic Elements of Applied Pharmacology in the Intensive Care Unit. Critical Care Nephrology, Kluwer Academic Publishers.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-011-5482-6"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1080\/17512433.2020.1759413","article-title":"The management of anti-infective agents in intensive care units: The potential roleof a \u2018fast\u2019 pharmacology","volume":"13","author":"Cattaneo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-8579(02)00020-1","article-title":"Can PK\/PD be used in everyday clinical practice?","volume":"19","author":"Scaglione","year":"2002","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2145","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-004-2428-9","article-title":"Antibiotic pharmacokinetic and pharmaodynamic considerations in critical illness","volume":"30","author":"Mehrotra","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R204","DOI":"10.1186\/cc2872","article-title":"ADQI workgroup. Acute renal failure-Definition, outcome measures, animal models, fluid therapy and information technology needs: The second International Consensus Conference of the Acute Dialysis Quality Initiative (ADQI) Group","volume":"8","author":"Bellomo","year":"2004","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1569","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gfn009","article-title":"A comparison of the RIFLE and AKIN criteria for acute kidney injury in critically ill patients","volume":"23","author":"Bagshaw","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nephrol. Dial Transplant."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1008","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.ki.5002729","article-title":"Biomarkers for the diagnosis and risk stratification of acute kidney injury: A systematic review","volume":"73","author":"Coca","year":"2008","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R31","DOI":"10.1186\/cc5713","article-title":"Acute kidney injury network: Report of an initiative to improve outcomes in acute kidney injury","volume":"11","author":"Mehta","year":"2007","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R110","DOI":"10.1186\/cc6997","article-title":"Acute kidney injury in intensive care unit patients: A comparison between the RIFLE and the Acute Kidney Injury Network classifications","volume":"12","author":"Lopes","year":"2008","journal-title":"Crit Care"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R7","DOI":"10.1186\/cc4915","article-title":"RIFLE criteria for acute kidney injury are associated with hospital mortality in critically ill patients: A cohort analysis","volume":"10","author":"Hoste","year":"2006","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"(2012). Kidney Disease Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) Acute Kidney Injury Work Group: KDIGO clinical practice guideline for acute kidney injury. Kidney Int. Suppl., 2, 1\u2013138."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Alberici, F., Del Barba, E., Manenti, C., Econimo, L., Valerio, F., Pola, A., Maffei, C., Possenti, S., Gaggia, P., and Movilli, E. (2022, November 30). Gestione del Paziente in Dialisi e con Trapianto di rene in corso di Infezione da Coronavirus COVID-19. Available online: https:\/\/giornaleitalianodinefrologia.it\/tag\/linee-guida\/."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2194","DOI":"10.1097\/01.CCM.0000182798.39709.84","article-title":"Early changes in organ function predict eventual survival in severe sepsis","volume":"33","author":"Levy","year":"2005","journal-title":"Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Liu, K.D., and Chertow, G.M. (2009). Acute Renal Failure. Harrison, Principi di Medicina Interna, McGraw-Hill. [17th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"440","DOI":"10.1007\/s11886-010-0129-2","article-title":"Contrast-induced acute kidney injury: The at risk patient and protective measures","volume":"12","author":"Brpwn","year":"2010","journal-title":"Curr. Cardiol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1539","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1523-1755.2002.00631.x","article-title":"Microvascular endothelial injury and Dysfunction during ischemic acute renal failure","volume":"62","author":"Sutton","year":"2002","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"6724","article-title":"Drug-induced renal disease","volume":"15","author":"Mathew","year":"1992","journal-title":"Med. J. Aust."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"460","DOI":"10.1016\/S0270-9295(03)00089-5","article-title":"Cisplatin nephrotoxicity","volume":"23","author":"Arany","year":"2003","journal-title":"Semin. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tox.2007.10.010","article-title":"The potential protective role of alfa-lipoic acid against acetaminophen-induced hepatic and renal damage","volume":"243","author":"Mahmoud","year":"2008","journal-title":"Toxicology"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1080\/20014091111677","article-title":"Paracetamolo (acetaminophen) induced toxicity: Molecular and biochemical mechanisms, analogues and protective approaches","volume":"31","author":"Bessems","year":"2001","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1553","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.V1181553","article-title":"Rhabdomyolysis","volume":"11","author":"Vanholder","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1097\/01.CCM.0000153408.09806.1B","article-title":"Incidence and prognosis of intraabdominal hypertension in a mixed population of critically ill patients: A multiple-center epidemiological study","volume":"33","author":"Malbrain","year":"2005","journal-title":"Crit. Care. Med."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"594","DOI":"10.1097\/00000658-198211000-00015","article-title":"Elevated intra-abdominal pressure and renal function","volume":"196","author":"Harman","year":"1982","journal-title":"Ann. Surg."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e550","DOI":"10.1097\/CCM.0000000000000397","article-title":"Angiotensin II in septic schock: Effects on tissue perfusion, organ function, and mitochondrial respiration in a porcine model of fecal peritonitis","volume":"42","author":"Takala","year":"2014","journal-title":"Crit.\u2013Care Med."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.1038\/ki.2009.502","article-title":"Acute kidney injury in non severe pneumonia is associated with an increased immune response and lower survival","volume":"77","author":"Murugan","year":"2010","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R164","DOI":"10.1186\/cc7164","article-title":"Renal Haemodynamic, microcirculatory, metabolic and histopathological responses to peritonitis-induce septic shock in pigs","volume":"12","author":"Chvojka","year":"2008","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e431","DOI":"10.1097\/CCM.0000000000001198","article-title":"Cortical and medullary tissue perfusion and oxygenation in experimental septic acute kidney injury","volume":"43","author":"Calzavacca","year":"2015","journal-title":"Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"338","DOI":"10.1038\/ki.2011.401","article-title":"The tubule pathology of septic acute kidney injury: A neglected area of research comes of age","volume":"81","author":"Venkatachalam","year":"2012","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.1097\/01.ccx.0000179936.21895.a3","article-title":"Renal replacement therapy and the kidney: Minimizing the impact of renal replacement therapy on recovery of acute renal failure","volume":"11","author":"Palevsky","year":"2005","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1817","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1523-1755.1998.00210.x","article-title":"Treatment of acute renal failure","volume":"54","author":"Star","year":"1998","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_53","first-page":"S67","article-title":"Use of diuretics in the acute care setting","volume":"53","author":"Kellum","year":"1998","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1416","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199411243312104","article-title":"Effects of saline, mannitol and furosemide to prevent acute decreases in renal function induced by radiocontrast agents","volume":"331","author":"Solomon","year":"1994","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"366","DOI":"10.2174\/1389201020666190417124711","article-title":"Fenoldopam Mesylate: A Narrative Review of Its Use in Acute Kidney Injury","volume":"20","author":"Noce","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Pharm. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-015-1166-4","article-title":"Fenoldopam to prevent acute kidney injury after major surgery-a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"19","author":"Gillies","year":"2015","journal-title":"Crit. Care."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2268","DOI":"10.1097\/CCM.0b013e3181aab3d0","article-title":"Principles of antibacterial dosing in continuous renal replacement therapy","volume":"37","author":"Choi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1177\/0885066614555490","article-title":"Antibiotic dosing in patients with kidney injury: \u201cEnough but not too much\u201d","volume":"31","author":"Lewis","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Intensiv. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"929","DOI":"10.1034\/j.1399-6576.2001.450802.x","article-title":"Pharmacokinetics and drug dosing adjustments during continuous venovenous hemofiltration or hemodiafitration in critically ill patients","volume":"45","author":"Bugge","year":"2001","journal-title":"Acta Anaesthesiol. Scans"},{"key":"ref_60","first-page":"748","article-title":"Drug administration in critically ill patients with acute renal failure","volume":"3","author":"Kroh","year":"1995","journal-title":"New Horiz."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1159","DOI":"10.1086\/444500","article-title":"Antibiotic dosing in critically ill adult patients receiving continuous renal replacement therapy","volume":"41","author":"Trotman","year":"2005","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-012-2706-x","article-title":"Management of renal replacement therapy in ICU patients: An international survey","volume":"39","author":"Legrand","year":"2013","journal-title":"Intensiv. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1582","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.ndt.a027617","article-title":"Pharmacokinatics of antimicrobial agents in anuric patients during continuous venovenous Haemofiltration","volume":"11","author":"Joos","year":"1996","journal-title":"Nephrol. Dial. Transplant."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"362","DOI":"10.1345\/aph.17105","article-title":"A primer on continuous renal replacement therapy for critically ill patients","volume":"32","author":"Joy","year":"1998","journal-title":"Ann. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1159\/000324191","article-title":"Longitudinal Hemodiafilter Performance in Modeled Continuous Renal Replacement Therapy","volume":"32","author":"Pasko","year":"2011","journal-title":"Blood Purif."},{"key":"ref_66","first-page":"3235765","article-title":"Antimicrobial doses in continuous renal replacement therapy: A comparison of dosing strategies","volume":"2016","author":"Kempke","year":"2016","journal-title":"Crit. Care Res. Pract."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"612","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01700172","article-title":"Pharmacokinetics of continuous renal replacement therapy","volume":"21","author":"Schetz","year":"1995","journal-title":"Int. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"362","DOI":"10.2165\/00003088-199324050-00002","article-title":"Drug dosage in patients during continuous renal replacement therpy. Pharmacokinetic and therapeutic considerations","volume":"24","author":"Bohler","year":"1993","journal-title":"Clin. Pharmacokinet."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1523","DOI":"10.1097\/CCM.0b013e318241e553","article-title":"Variability of antibiotic concentrations in critically ill patients receiving continuous renal replacement therapy: A multicenter pharmacokinetic study","volume":"40","author":"Roberts","year":"2012","journal-title":"Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-016-1551-7","article-title":"Effects of continuous renal replacement therapy on linezolid pharmacokinetic\/pharmacodynamics: A systematic review","volume":"20","author":"Villa","year":"2016","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_71","first-page":"1640","article-title":"The impact of variation in renal replacement therapy setting on piperacillina, meropenem and vancomycin drug clearance in the critically ill: An analysis of published literature and dosing regimens","volume":"42","author":"Jamal","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Investigtion"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, C., Zhang, C., Li, X., Zhao, S., He, N., Zhai, S., and Ge, Q. (2021). Dose Optimization of Vancomycin for Critically Ill Patients Undergoing CVVH: A Prospective Population PK\/PD Analysis. Antibiotics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics10111392"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1007\/s00228-019-02755-5","article-title":"Pharmacokinetics of and maintenance dose recommendations for vancomycin in severe pneumonia patients undergoing continuous venovenous hemofiltration with the combination of predilution and postdilution","volume":"76","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"554","DOI":"10.1002\/phar.2535","article-title":"Evaluation of dosing strategies and trough concentrations of vancomycin in patients undergoing continuous venovenous hemofiltration","volume":"41","author":"Wahby","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pharmacotherapy"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkx356","article-title":"Prospective evaluation of a continuous infusion vancomycin dosing nomogram in critically ill patients undergoing continuous venovenous haemofiltration","volume":"73","author":"Sin","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1097\/FTD.0000000000000495","article-title":"Effect of Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation on the New Vancomycin Dosing Regimen in Critically Ill Patients Receiving Continuous Venovenous Hemofiltration","volume":"40","author":"Yang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ther. Drug Monit."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, J., Duan, L., Li, J., Chen, F., Xu, X., Lu, J., Zhuang, Z., Cao, Y., Yuan, Y., and Liu, X. (2022). Continuous infusion versus intermittent infusion of vancomycin in critically ill patients undergoing continuous venovenous hemofiltration: A prospective interventional study. BMC Infect. Dis., 22.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-022-07618-6"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S279","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiz566","article-title":"Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics of Linezolid in Patients with Sepsis Receiving Continuous Venovenous Hemofiltration and Extended Daily Hemofiltration","volume":"221","author":"Zheng","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Werumeus Buning, A., Hodiamont, C.J., Lechner, N.M., Schokkin, M., Elbers, P.W.G., Juffermans, N.P., Math\u00f4t, R.A.A., de Jong, M.D., and van Hest, R.M. (2021). Population Pharmacokinetics and Probability of Target Attainment of Different Dosing Regimens of Ceftazidime in Critically Ill Patients with a Proven or Suspected Pseudomonas aeruginosa Infection. Antibiotics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics10060612"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154011","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcrc.2022.154011","article-title":"An optimal extended-infusion dosing of cefepime and ceftazidime in critically ill patients with continuous renal replacement therapy","volume":"69","author":"Sember","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Crit. Care."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1066","DOI":"10.1002\/phar.2332","article-title":"Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics of Extended-Infusion Cefepime in Critically Ill Patients Receiving Continuous Renal Replacement Therapy: A Prospective, Open-Label Study","volume":"39","author":"Philpott","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pharmacotherapy"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1182","DOI":"10.1002\/jcph.1865","article-title":"Population Pharmacokinetic Modeling and Simulations of Imipenem in Burn Patients with and Without Continuous Venovenous Hemofiltration in the Military Health System","volume":"61","author":"Por","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2156","DOI":"10.1111\/bcp.15138","article-title":"Meropenem pharmacokinetics in critically ill patients with or without burn treated with or without continuous veno-venous haemofiltration","volume":"88","author":"Selig","year":"2022","journal-title":"Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154172","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcrc.2022.154172","article-title":"Optimal antipseudomonal \ua7b5-lactam drug dosing recommendations in critically-ill Asian patients receiving CRRT","volume":"72","author":"Jang","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Crit Care."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"899","DOI":"10.1159\/000513417","article-title":"Antibiotics Removal by Continuous Venovenous Hemofiltration with a Novel Asymmetric Triacetate Membrane Hemofilter: An in vitro Study","volume":"50","author":"Heskamp","year":"2021","journal-title":"Blood Purif."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.5414\/CPP40142","article-title":"Elimination of levofloxacin in critically ill patients with renal failure: Influence of continuous veno-venous hemofiltration","volume":"40","author":"Bellmann","year":"2002","journal-title":"Int. J. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106599","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2022.106599","article-title":"Population pharmacokinetics of polymyxin B in critically ill patients receiving continuous venovenous haemofiltration","volume":"60","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"}],"container-title":["Antibiotics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6382\/11\/12\/1769\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:35:52Z","timestamp":1760146552000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6382\/11\/12\/1769"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,7]]},"references-count":87,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,12]]}},"alternative-id":["antibiotics11121769"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/antibiotics11121769","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-6382"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-6382","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,7]]}}}