{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,27]],"date-time":"2026-10-27T13:39:51Z","timestamp":1793108391674,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":75,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,13]],"date-time":"2023-02-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1676246400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"European Union, EuroNanoMed3, project nAngioDerm, through the Greek General Secretariat for Research and Innovation ERA-NETS","award":["\u03a49\u0395\u03a1A3-00022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["\u03a49\u0395\u03a1A3-00022"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Antibiotics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The increase in antimicrobial resistance and tolerance over the years has become a serious public health problem, leading to the inevitable development of alternative antimicrobial agents as substitutes for industrial pharmaceutical antibiotics targeting humans and animals under the concept of one health. Essential oils (EOs) extracted from aromatic and pharmaceutical plants incorporate several bioactive compounds (phytochemicals) that positively affect human and animal health. Herein, this work aimed to examine a standardized chemical composition and screen the antimicrobial and anti-biofilm activity of Thymus sibthorpii, Origanum vulgare, Salvia fruticosa, and Crithmum maritimum EOs against three different Staphylococcus aureus strains by gold-standard disc diffusion, broth microdilution, and microtiter plate biofilm assays. Therefore, the evaluation of the above-mentioned EOs were considered as substitutes for antibiotics to combat the ever-mounting antimicrobial resistance problem. The observed bacterial growth inhibition varied significantly depending on the type and concentration of the antimicrobials. Thymus sibthorpii was determined as the strongest antimicrobial, with 0.091 mg\/mL minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and a 14\u201333 mm diameter inhibition zone at 5% (v\/v) concentration. All tested EOs indicated almost 95% inhibition of biofilm formation at their half MIC, while gentamicin sulfate did not show sufficient anti-biofilm activity. None of the methicillin-resistant strains showed resistance to the EOs compared to methicillin-sensitive strains. Thymus sibthorpii and Origanum vulgare could be potential alternatives as antimicrobial agents to overcome the problem of microbial resistance. The tested EOs might be incorporated into antimicrobial products as safe and potent antimicrobial and anti-biofilm agents.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics12020384","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,14]],"date-time":"2023-02-14T02:41:56Z","timestamp":1676342516000},"page":"384","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":45,"title":["The Assessment of Antimicrobial and Anti-Biofilm Activity of Essential Oils against Staphylococcus aureus Strains"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1256-4113","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Caglar","family":"Ersanli","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Animal Science, Nutrition and Biotechnology, School of Agriculture, University of Ioannina, 47100 Arta, Greece"},{"name":"Laboratory of Animal Health, Food Hygiene, and Quality, School of Agriculture, University of Ioannina, 47100 Arta, Greece"},{"name":"Regenerative, Modular & Developmental Engineering Laboratory (REMODEL), Charles Institute of Dermatology, Conway Institute of Biomolecular and Biomedical Research and School of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, University College Dublin, D04 V1W8 Dublin, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2615-7068","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Athina","family":"Tzora","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Animal Health, Food Hygiene, and Quality, School of Agriculture, University of Ioannina, 47100 Arta, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ioannis","family":"Skoufos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Animal Science, Nutrition and Biotechnology, School of Agriculture, University of Ioannina, 47100 Arta, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Konstantina","family":"Fotou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Animal Health, Food Hygiene, and Quality, School of Agriculture, University of Ioannina, 47100 Arta, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eleni","family":"Maloupa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Conservation and Evaluation of Native and Floricultural Species, Institute of Plant Breeding; and Genetic Resources, Hellenic Agricultural Organization Demeter, Thermi, 57001 Thessaloniki, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8000-9982","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Katerina","family":"Grigoriadou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Conservation and Evaluation of Native and Floricultural Species, Institute of Plant Breeding; and Genetic Resources, Hellenic Agricultural Organization Demeter, Thermi, 57001 Thessaloniki, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8035-1710","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chrysoula (Chrysa)","family":"Voidarou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Animal Health, Food Hygiene, and Quality, School of Agriculture, University of Ioannina, 47100 Arta, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7599-5191","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dimitrios I.","family":"Zeugolis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Regenerative, Modular & Developmental Engineering Laboratory (REMODEL), Charles Institute of Dermatology, Conway Institute of Biomolecular and Biomedical Research and School of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, University College Dublin, D04 V1W8 Dublin, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1186\/s13756-015-0091-2","article-title":"Antimicrobial resistance: One world, one fight!","volume":"4","author":"Harbarth","year":"2015","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Resist. Infect. Control."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rozos, G., Skoufos, I., Fotou, K., Alexopoulos, A., Tsinas, A., Bezirtzoglou, E., Tzora, A., and Voidarou, C. (2022). Safety Issues Regarding the Detection of Antibiotics Residues, Microbial Indicators and Somatic Cell Counts in Ewes\u2019 and Goats\u2019 Milk Reared in Two Different Farming Systems. Appl. Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/app12031009"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1007\/s00239-019-09914-3","article-title":"Antimicrobial resistance in bacteria: Mechanisms, evolution, and persistence","volume":"88","author":"Christaki","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Mol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1007\/s12275-019-0718-8","article-title":"Perspectives towards antibiotic resistance: From molecules to population","volume":"57","author":"Lee","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2101247","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.202101247","article-title":"Polymer Composite Sponges with Inherent Antibacterial, Hemostatic, Inflammation-Modulating and Proregenerative Performances for Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus-Infected Wound Healing","volume":"10","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Adv. Healthc. Mater"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-018-0125-x","article-title":"The cost of antimicrobial resistance","volume":"17","author":"Hofer","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1817","DOI":"10.1007\/s10096-014-2131-x","article-title":"Analysis of MRSA-attributed costs of hospitalized patients in Germany","volume":"33","author":"Hopert","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1086\/651094","article-title":"Excess costs and utilization associated with methicillin resistance for patients with Staphylococcus aureus infection","volume":"31","author":"Filice","year":"2010","journal-title":"Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"5238","article-title":"The clinical characteristics and microbiological investigation of pediatric burn patients with wound infections in a tertiary hospital in Ningbo, China: A ten-year retrospective study","volume":"13","author":"Ke","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pollitt, E.J., Szkuta, P.T., Burns, N., and Foster, S.J. (2018). Staphylococcus aureus infection dynamics. PLoS Pathog., 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1007112"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"605","DOI":"10.1586\/14787210.2015.1023291","article-title":"Chronic wound infections: The role of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus","volume":"13","author":"Serra","year":"2015","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Anti-Infect. Ther."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Almeida, G.C.M., dos Santos, M.M., Lima, N.G.M., Cidral, T.A., Melo, M.C.N., and Lima, K.C. (2014). Prevalence and factors associated with wound colonization by Staphylococcus spp. and Staphylococcus aureus in hospitalized patients in inland northeastern Brazil: A cross-sectional study. BMC Infect., 14.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2334-14-328"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Idrees, M., Sawant, S., Karodia, N., Rahman, A., and Health, P. (2021). Staphylococcus aureus biofilm: Morphology, genetics, pathogenesis and treatment strategies. Int. J. Environ. Res., 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18147602"},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"00163","article-title":"Plant essential oil: An alternative to emerging multidrug resistant pathogens","volume":"5","author":"Taiwo","year":"2017","journal-title":"JMEN"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110116","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lwt.2020.110116","article-title":"Combination of essential oils in dairy products: A review of their functions and potential benefits","volume":"133","author":"Mishra","year":"2020","journal-title":"LWT"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chouhan, S., Sharma, K., and Guleria, S. (2017). Antimicrobial activity of some essential oils\u2014Present status and future perspectives. Medicines, 4.","DOI":"10.3390\/medicines4030058"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tifs.2021.01.070","article-title":"Recent updates on the chemistry, bioactivities, mode of action, and industrial applications of plant essential oils","volume":"110","author":"Ni","year":"2021","journal-title":"Trends Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"653420","DOI":"10.3389\/fsufs.2021.653420","article-title":"Essential oils and their application in food safety","volume":"5","author":"Maurya","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Sustain. Food Syst."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2013.05.024","article-title":"Antibacterial activity of essential oils from plants of the genus Origanum","volume":"34","author":"Stefanakis","year":"2013","journal-title":"Food Control"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cimino, C., Maurel, O.M., Musumeci, T., Bonaccorso, A., Drago, F., Souto, E.M.B., Pignatello, R., and Carbone, C. (2021). Essential oils: Pharmaceutical applications and encapsulation strategies into lipid-based delivery systems. Pharmaceutics, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics13030327"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1002\/ffj.3165","article-title":"Major bioactivities and mechanism of action of essential oils and their components","volume":"28","author":"Saad","year":"2013","journal-title":"Flavour Fragr. J."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.2141\/jpsa.0160071","article-title":"Effects of oregano, attapulgite, benzoic acid and their blend on chicken performance, intestinal microbiology and intestinal morphology","volume":"54","author":"Tzora","year":"2017","journal-title":"Poult. Sci. J."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1451","DOI":"10.3390\/ph6121451","article-title":"Effect of essential oils on pathogenic bacteria","volume":"6","author":"Nazzaro","year":"2013","journal-title":"Pharmaceuticals"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fochx.2022.100217","article-title":"Terpenes and terpenoids as main bioactive compounds of essential oils, their roles in human health and potential application as natural food preservatives","volume":"13","author":"Masyita","year":"2022","journal-title":"Food Chem. X"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Man, A., Santacroce, L., Iacob, R., Mare, A., and Man, L. (2019). Antimicrobial activity of six essential oils against a group of human pathogens: A comparative study. Pathogens, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens8010015"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"996","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molliq.2017.06.099","article-title":"Terpenes solubility in water and their environmental distribution","volume":"241","author":"Martins","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Mol. Liq."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108463","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meatsci.2021.108463","article-title":"Chemical composition, extraction sources and action mechanisms of essential oils: Natural preservative and limitations of use in meat products","volume":"176","author":"Bernardes","year":"2021","journal-title":"Meat Sci."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"49","article-title":"Role of essential oils in food safety: Antimicrobial and antioxidant applications","volume":"2","author":"Bhavaniramya","year":"2019","journal-title":"GOST"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2004.03.022","article-title":"Essential oils: Their antibacterial properties and potential applications in foods\u2014A review","volume":"94","author":"Burt","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2172","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2020.1851169","article-title":"Effectiveness and mechanisms of essential oils for biofilm control on food-contact surfaces: An updated review","volume":"62","author":"Rossi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kostoglou, D., Protopappas, I., and Giaouris, E. (2020). Common plant-derived terpenoids present increased anti-biofilm potential against Staphylococcus bacteria compared to a quaternary ammonium biocide. Foods, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods9060697"},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"728065","article-title":"Essential oils composition and antioxidant properties of three thymus species","volume":"2012","author":"Amiri","year":"2012","journal-title":"eCAM"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1253","DOI":"10.1007\/s11101-017-9535-z","article-title":"Bioactivities of Origanum vulgare L.: An update","volume":"16","author":"Pezzani","year":"2017","journal-title":"Phytochem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"716","DOI":"10.1080\/0972060X.2022.2110388","article-title":"Comparison of Chemical Composition and Antimicrobial Activity of Salvia fruticosa Mill. and S. aramiensis Rech. Fill. (Lamiaceae)","volume":"25","author":"Bahadirli","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Essent. Oil-Bear. Plants"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1438-8677.1998.tb00705.x","article-title":"Variation of Salvia fruticosa essential oils on the island of Crete (Greece)","volume":"111","author":"Karousou","year":"1998","journal-title":"Bot. Acta"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1002\/1099-1026(200005\/06)15:3<186::AID-FFJ889>3.0.CO;2-I","article-title":"Composition and antibacterial activity of the essential oil from Crithmum maritimum L.(Apiaceae) growing wild in Turkey","volume":"15","author":"Senatore","year":"2000","journal-title":"Flavour Fragr. J."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102283","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jddst.2020.102283","article-title":"A short review on the antimicrobial micro-and nanoparticles loaded with Melaleuca alternifolia essential oil","volume":"63","author":"Battisti","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Drug Deliv. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aljeldah, M.M. (2022). Antioxidant and antimicrobial potencies of chemically-profiled essential oil from asteriscus graveolens against clinically-important pathogenic microbial strains. Molecules, 27.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules27113539"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jaradat, N. (2021). Phytochemical profile and in vitro antioxidant, antimicrobial, vital physiological enzymes inhibitory and cytotoxic effects of artemisia jordanica leaves essential oil from Palestine. Molecules, 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules26092831"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rai, K.K.M. (2016). Antibiotic Resistance. Mechanisms and New Antimicrobial Approaches, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-803642-6.00006-X"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.14745\/ccdr.v41i02a04","article-title":"STIs and sexual health awareness month: Antimicrobial resistance to Neisseria gonorrhoeae in Canada: 2009\u20132013","volume":"41","author":"Martin","year":"2015","journal-title":"CCDR"},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"71","article-title":"Methods for in vitro evaluating antimicrobial activity: A review","volume":"6","author":"Balouiri","year":"2016","journal-title":"JPA"},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"4753","article-title":"Evaluation of Antimicrobial Activity of \u03b2-tricalcium Phosphate\/Calcium Sulfate Mixed-up with Gentamicin: In-Vitro Study","volume":"8","author":"Zain","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Dent. Oral Sci."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kulshreshtha, G., Critchley, A., Rathgeber, B., Stratton, G., Banskota, A.H., Hafting, J., and Prithiviraj, B. (2020). Antimicrobial effects of selected, cultivated red seaweeds and their components in combination with tetracycline, against poultry pathogen Salmonella enteritidis. J. Mar. Sci. Eng., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/jmse8070511"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"035013","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-605X\/aa6de0","article-title":"Battling bacterial infection with hexamethylene diisocyanate cross-linked and Cefaclor-loaded collagen scaffolds","volume":"12","author":"Tsekoura","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biomed. Mater."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1007\/s11101-018-9591-z","article-title":"Comprehensive review of antimicrobial activities of plant flavonoids","volume":"18","author":"Bartoszewski","year":"2019","journal-title":"Phytochem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chokejaroenrat, C., Sakulthaew, C., Satchasataporn, K., Snow, D.D., Ali, T.E., Assiri, M.A., Watcharenwong, A., Imman, S., Suriyachai, N., and Kreetachat, T. (2022). Enrofloxacin and Sulfamethoxazole Sorption on Carbonized Leonardite: Kinetics, Isotherms, Influential Effects, and Antibacterial Activity toward S. aureus ATCC 25923. Antibiotics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics11091261"},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"104","article-title":"Techniques for evaluation of medicinal plant products as antimicrobial agent: Current methods and future trends","volume":"4","author":"Das","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Med. Plant Res."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1459","DOI":"10.1080\/0972060X.2013.764209","article-title":"Chemical composition, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of essential oil from Crithmum maritimum cultivated in Tunisia","volume":"18","author":"Houta","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Essent. Oil Bear. Plants"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"444","DOI":"10.1016\/j.indcrop.2015.09.013","article-title":"Antimicrobial activity of essential oils of Origanum vulgare L. and Origanum majorana L. against Staphylococcus aureus isolated from poultry meat","volume":"77","author":"Funck","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ind. Crops Prod."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chan, W.-K., Tan, L.T.-H., Chan, K.-G., Lee, L.-H., and Goh, B.-H. (2016). Nerolidol: A sesquiterpene alcohol with multi-faceted pharmacological and biological activities. Molecules, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules21050529"},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"945","article-title":"Antimicrobial screening of some medicinal plants collected from Eskisehir, Turkey","volume":"20","author":"Kunduhoglu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Fresenius Environ. Bull."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"CLSI (2012). Performance Standards for Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing: Twenty-fifth Informational Supplement\u2014CLSI Document M100-S25, Clinical & Laboratory Standards Institute."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"CLSI (2012). Performance Standards for Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing: Twenty-second Informational Supplement\u2014CLSI Document M100-S22, Clinical & Laboratory Standards Institute."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"CLSI (2018). Methods for Dilution Antimicrobial Susceptibility Tests for Bacteria That Grow Aerobically: Approved Standard\u2014Ninth Edition\u2014CLSI Document M07-A9, Clinical & Laboratory Standards Institute."},{"key":"ref_56","first-page":"370","article-title":"Investigation of antimicrobial activities of some herbs containing essential oils and their mouthwash formulations","volume":"15","author":"Kulaksiz","year":"2018","journal-title":"Turk. J. Pharm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1128\/mr.59.2.201-222.1995","article-title":"Mechanisms of membrane toxicity of hydrocarbons","volume":"59","author":"Sikkema","year":"1995","journal-title":"Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1675","DOI":"10.1002\/ptr.6103","article-title":"Carvacrol and human health: A comprehensive review","volume":"32","author":"Varoni","year":"2018","journal-title":"Phytother. Res."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4863","DOI":"10.1021\/jf0636465","article-title":"Membrane toxicity of antimicrobial compounds from essential oils","volume":"55","author":"Betts","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3590","DOI":"10.1021\/jf980154m","article-title":"Characterization of the action of selected essential oil components on Gram-negative bacteria","volume":"46","author":"Helander","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3042","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2019.1675585","article-title":"The antibacterial properties of phenolic isomers, carvacrol and thymol","volume":"60","author":"Kachur","year":"2020","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"626","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2672.1994.tb01661.x","article-title":"Factors that interact with the antibacterial action of thyme essential oil and its active constituents","volume":"76","author":"Juven","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Appl. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106864","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2019.106864","article-title":"The mechanisms of action of carvacrol and its synergism with nisin against Listeria monocytogenes on sliced bologna sausage","volume":"108","author":"Churklam","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Control"},{"key":"ref_64","first-page":"614","article-title":"Assessment of factors influencing antimicrobial activity of carvacrol and cymene against Vibrio cholerae in food","volume":"110","author":"Rattanachaikunsopon","year":"2010","journal-title":"JBB"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6300","DOI":"10.1021\/jf070094x","article-title":"Interaction of four monoterpenes contained in essential oils with model membranes: Implications for their antibacterial activity","volume":"55","author":"Cristani","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1645","DOI":"10.1111\/ijfs.13438","article-title":"Physical, antimicrobial and antibiofilm properties of Zataria multiflora Boiss essential oil nanoemulsion","volume":"52","author":"Shahabi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.24823\/Sibbaldia.2008.33","article-title":"The Balkan Botanic Garden of Kroussia, Northern Greece","volume":"6","author":"Maloupa","year":"2008","journal-title":"Sibbaldia Int. J. Bot. Gard. Hortic."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Simirgiotis, M.J., Burton, D., Parra, F., L\u00f3pez, J., Mu\u00f1oz, P., Escobar, H., and Parra, C. (2020). Antioxidant and antibacterial capacities of Origanum vulgare L. essential oil from the arid Andean Region of Chile and its chemical characterization by GC-MS. Metabolites, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/metabo10100414"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1007\/s10681-017-1889-1","article-title":"Conventional breeding of Greek oregano (Origanum vulgare ssp. hirtum) and development of improved cultivars for yield potential and essential oil quality","volume":"213","author":"Sarrou","year":"2017","journal-title":"Euphytica"},{"key":"ref_70","unstructured":"Adams, R.P. (2007). Quadrupole Mass Spectroscopy, Allured Publishing Corporation."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1016\/j.anaerobe.2011.05.002","article-title":"Isolation of microbial pathogens of subclinical mastitis from raw sheep\u2019s milk of Epirus (Greece) and their role in its hygiene","volume":"17","author":"Fotou","year":"2011","journal-title":"Anaerobe"},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"CLSI (2015). Performance Standards for Antimicrobial Disk Susceptibility Tests: Approved Standard\u2014CLSI Document M02-A11, Clinical & Laboratory Standards Institute."},{"key":"ref_73","unstructured":"CLSI (2006). Methods for Dilution Antimicrobial Susceptibility Tests for Bacteria That Grow Aerobically: Approved Standard\u2014Eighth Edition\u2014CLSI Document M07-A7, Clinical & Laboratory Standards Institute."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-7012(00)00122-6","article-title":"A modified microtiter-plate test for quantification of staphylococcal biofilm formation","volume":"40","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Microbiol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_75","first-page":"677","article-title":"Survival and biofilm formation by Group B streptococci in simulated vaginal fluid at different pHs","volume":"101","author":"Borges","year":"2012","journal-title":"ALJMAO"}],"container-title":["Antibiotics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6382\/12\/2\/384\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T18:34:06Z","timestamp":1760121246000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6382\/12\/2\/384"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,13]]},"references-count":75,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2]]}},"alternative-id":["antibiotics12020384"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/antibiotics12020384","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-6382"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-6382","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,13]]}}}