{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,18]],"date-time":"2026-09-18T18:50:08Z","timestamp":1789757408474,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,24]],"date-time":"2023-02-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1677196800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Antibiotics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The worldwide crises from multi-drug-resistant (MDR) bacterial infections are pushing us to search for new alternative therapies. The renewed interest in medicinal plants has gained the attention of our research group. Tamarindus indica\u00a0L. (T. indica) is one of the traditional medicines used for a wide range of diseases. Therefore, we evaluated the antimicrobial activities of ethanolic extract of T. indica. The inhibitions zones, minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC), and fractional inhibitor concentration indices (FICI) against Gram+ve and \u2212ve pathogens were detected. The bioactive compounds from T. indica extract were identified by mass spectroscopy, thin-layer chromatography, and bio-autographic assay. We performed scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and molecular docking studies to confirm possible mechanisms of actions and antivirulence activities, respectively. We found more promising antimicrobial activities against MDR pathogens with MIC and MBC values for Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa), i.e., (0.78, 3.12 mg\/mL) and (1.56, 3.12 mg\/mL), respectively. The antimicrobial activities of this extract were attributed to its capability to impair cell membrane permeability, inducing bacterial cell lysis, which was confirmed by the morphological changes observed under SEM. The synergistic interactions between this extract and commonly used antibiotics were confirmed (FICI values &lt; 0.5). The bioactive compounds of this extract were bis (2-ethylhexyl)phthalate, phenol, 2,4-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl), 1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid, and bis(8-methylnonyl) ester. Additionally, this extract showed antivirulence activities, especially against the S. aureus protease and P. aeruginosa elastase. In conclusion, we hope that pharmaceutical companies can utilize our findings to produce a new formulation of T. indica ethanolic extract with other antibiotics.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics12030464","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,27]],"date-time":"2023-02-27T03:29:48Z","timestamp":1677468588000},"page":"464","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":31,"title":["Tamarindus indica Extract as a Promising Antimicrobial and Antivirulence Therapy"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Mohamed F.","family":"Ghaly","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Botany and Microbiology Department, Faculty of Science, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44519, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4579-0045","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marzough Aziz","family":"Albalawi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, Alwajh College, University of Tabuk, Tabuk 71491, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mahmoud M.","family":"Bendary","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Port Said University, Port Said 42526, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ahmed","family":"Shahin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Microbiology and Immunology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44519, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mohamed A.","family":"Shaheen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical Pathology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Al-Azhar University, Cairo 11311, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abeer F.","family":"Abu Eleneen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Botany and Microbiology Department, Faculty of Science, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44519, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9179-4373","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohammed M.","family":"Ghoneim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy Practice, College of Pharmacy, AlMaarefa University, Ad Diriyah 13713, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4634-3039","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ayman Abo","family":"Elmaaty","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medicinal Chemistry Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Port Said University, Port Said 42526, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mohamed F. M.","family":"Elrefai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Anatomy, Histology, Physiology and Biochemistry Department, Faculty of Medicine, Hashemite University, Zarqa 13116, Jordan"},{"name":"Anatomy and Embryology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Ain Shams University, Cairo 11566, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9688-7683","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sawsan A.","family":"Zaitone","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Tabuk, Tabuk 71491, Saudi Arabia"},{"name":"Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Suez Canal University, Ismailia 41522, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Amira I.","family":"Abousaty","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Botany and Microbiology Department, Faculty of Science, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44519, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"2019","article-title":"In Vitro Antimicrobial Activity of Some Medicinal Plants against Human Pathogenic Bacteria","volume":"2","author":"Manandhar","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. 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