{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]],"date-time":"2026-10-02T13:31:09Z","timestamp":1790947869885,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":91,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,14]],"date-time":"2023-06-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1686700800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002347","name":"German Federal Ministry of Education and Research and the German Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["13GW0456"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["13GW0456"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002347","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002347","name":"German Federal Ministry of Education and Research and the German Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["13GW0422"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["13GW0422"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002347","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002347","name":"German Federal Ministry of Education and Research and the German Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["13N15717"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["13N15717"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002347","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002347","name":"German Federal Ministry of Education and Research and the German Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["49MF180153"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["49MF180153"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002347","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Federal Ministry of Education and Research","award":["13GW0456"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["13GW0456"]}]},{"name":"Federal Ministry of Education and Research","award":["13GW0422"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["13GW0422"]}]},{"name":"Federal Ministry of Education and Research","award":["13N15717"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["13N15717"]}]},{"name":"Federal Ministry of Education and Research","award":["49MF180153"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["49MF180153"]}]},{"name":"Federal Ministry of Education and Research","award":["13GW0456"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["13GW0456"]}]},{"name":"Federal Ministry of Education and Research","award":["13GW0422"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["13GW0422"]}]},{"name":"Federal Ministry of Education and Research","award":["13N15717"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["13N15717"]}]},{"name":"Federal Ministry of Education and Research","award":["49MF180153"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["49MF180153"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Antibiotics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The aim of this study was to comprehensively characterise S. aureus from the Caribbean Islands of Trinidad and Tobago, and Jamaica. A total of 101 S. aureus\/argenteus isolates were collected in 2020, mainly from patients with skin and soft tissue infections. They were characterised by DNA microarray allowing the detection of ca. 170 target genes and assignment to clonal complexes (CC)s and strains. In addition, the in vitro production of Panton\u2013Valentine leukocidin (PVL) was examined by an experimental lateral flow assay. Two isolates were identified as S. argenteus, CC2596. The remaining S. aureus isolates were assigned to 21 CCs. The PVL rate among methicillin-susceptible S. aureus (MSSA) isolates was high (38\/101), and 37 of the 38 genotypically positive isolates also yielded positive lateral flow results. The isolate that did not produce PVL was genome-sequenced, and it was shown to have a frameshift mutation in agrC. The high rate of PVL genes can be attributed to the presence of a known local CC8\u2013MSSA clone in Trinidad and Tobago (n = 12) and to CC152\u2013MSSA (n = 15). In contrast to earlier surveys, the USA300 clone was not found, although one MSSA isolate carried the ACME element, probably being a mecA-deficient derivative of this strain. Ten isolates, all from Trinidad and Tobago, were identified as MRSA. The pandemic ST239\u2013MRSA\u2013III strain was still common (n = 7), but five isolates showed a composite SCCmec element not observed elsewhere. Three isolates were sequenced. That showed a group of genes (among others, speG, crzC, and ccrA\/B-4) to be linked to its SCC element, as previously found in some CC5\u2013 and CC8\u2013MRSA, as well as in S. epidermidis. The other three MRSA belonged to CC22, CC72, and CC88, indicating epidemiological connections to Africa and the Middle East.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics12061050","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,15]],"date-time":"2023-06-15T01:32:57Z","timestamp":1686792777000},"page":"1050","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Clonal Complexes Distribution of Staphylococcus aureus Isolates from Clinical Samples from the Caribbean Islands"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4368-8709","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stefan","family":"Monecke","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Leibniz Institute of Photonic Technology (IPHT), 07745 Jena, Germany"},{"name":"InfectoGnostics Research Campus, 07743 Jena, Germany"},{"name":"Institute for Medical Microbiology and Virology, Dresden University Hospital, 01307 Dresden, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Patrick Eberechi","family":"Akpaka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Para-Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medical Sciences, St. Augustine Campus, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Margaret R.","family":"Smith","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Para-Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medical Sciences, St. Augustine Campus, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chandrashekhar G.","family":"Unakal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Para-Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medical Sciences, St. Augustine Campus, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1341-9308","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Camille-Ann","family":"Thoms Rodriguez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Mona Campus, The University of the West Indies, Kgn7, Kingston, Jamaica"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Khalil","family":"Ashraph","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Para-Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medical Sciences, St. Augustine Campus, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elke","family":"M\u00fcller","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Leibniz Institute of Photonic Technology (IPHT), 07745 Jena, Germany"},{"name":"InfectoGnostics Research Campus, 07743 Jena, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sascha D.","family":"Braun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Leibniz Institute of Photonic Technology (IPHT), 07745 Jena, Germany"},{"name":"InfectoGnostics Research Campus, 07743 Jena, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Celia","family":"Diezel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Leibniz Institute of Photonic Technology (IPHT), 07745 Jena, Germany"},{"name":"InfectoGnostics Research Campus, 07743 Jena, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Martin","family":"Reinicke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Leibniz Institute of Photonic Technology (IPHT), 07745 Jena, Germany"},{"name":"InfectoGnostics Research Campus, 07743 Jena, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6612-0043","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ralf","family":"Ehricht","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Leibniz Institute of Photonic Technology (IPHT), 07745 Jena, Germany"},{"name":"InfectoGnostics Research Campus, 07743 Jena, Germany"},{"name":"Institute of Physical Chemistry, Friedrich-Schiller University, 07743 Jena, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"19688","article-title":"Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA): Burden of disease and control challenges in Europe","volume":"15","author":"Becker","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eurosurveillance"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Monecke, S., Coombs, G., Shore, A.C., Coleman, D.C., Akpaka, P., Borg, M., Chow, H., Ip, M., Jatzwauk, L., and Jonas, D. (2011). A field guide to pandemic, epidemic and sporadic clones of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. PLoS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0017936"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"588","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mib.2012.08.003","article-title":"Global epidemiology of community-associated methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (CA-MRSA)","volume":"15","author":"Mediavilla","year":"2012","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"653","DOI":"10.1101\/gr.147710.112","article-title":"A genomic portrait of the emergence, evolution, and global spread of a methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus pandemic","volume":"23","author":"Holden","year":"2013","journal-title":"Genome Res."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijmm.2013.02.007","article-title":"Community-associated MRSA: What makes them special?","volume":"303","author":"Otto","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"318","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(17)30753-3","article-title":"Discovery, research, and development of new antibiotics: The WHO priority list of antibiotic-resistant bacteria and tuberculosis","volume":"18","author":"Tacconelli","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Kraker, M.E.A., Stewardson, A.J., and Harbarth, S. (2016). Will 10 Million People Die a Year due to Antimicrobial Resistance by 2050?. PLoS Medicine, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1002184"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1008","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.38.3.1008-1015.2000","article-title":"Multilocus sequence typing for characterization of methicillin-resistant and methicillin-susceptible clones of Staphylococcus aureus","volume":"38","author":"Enright","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1323","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.45.5.1323-1336.2001","article-title":"Structural comparison of three types of staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec integrated in the chromosome in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus","volume":"45","author":"Ito","year":"2001","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2637","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.48.7.2637-2651.2004","article-title":"Novel type V staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec driven by a novel cassette chromosome recombinase, ccrC","volume":"48","author":"Ito","year":"2004","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2882","DOI":"10.1128\/jb.171.5.2882-2885.1989","article-title":"Expression and inducibility in Staphylococcus aureus of the mecA gene, which encodes a methicillin-resistant S. aureus-specific penicillin-binding protein","volume":"171","author":"Ubukata","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1038\/labinvest.3700501","article-title":"Community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: The role of Panton-Valentine leukocidin","volume":"87","author":"Daum","year":"2007","journal-title":"Lab. Invest."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1097\/01.mop.0000147906.30720.4d","article-title":"Community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in pediatrics","volume":"17","author":"Buescher","year":"2005","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.1097\/MAJ.0b013e3181e95fdc","article-title":"Increasing threat of community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus","volume":"340","author":"Bukharie","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Coombs, G.W., Monecke, S., Pearson, J.C., Tan, H.L., Chew, Y.K., Wilson, L., Ehricht, R., O\u2019Brien, F.G., and Christiansen, K.J. (2011). Evolution and diversity of community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in a geographical region. BMC Microbiol., 11.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2180-11-215"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1086\/502231","article-title":"Community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: An emerging pathogen","volume":"24","author":"Mathema","year":"2003","journal-title":"Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"978","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0908.030089","article-title":"Community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus carrying Panton-Valentine leukocidin genes: Worldwide emergence","volume":"9","author":"Vandenesch","year":"2003","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.1016\/j.medmal.2014.01.006","article-title":"Emergence of the European ST80 clone of community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus as a cause of healthcare-associated infections in Eastern Algeria","volume":"44","author":"Alioua","year":"2014","journal-title":"Med. Mal. Infect."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhin.2005.01.027","article-title":"Three-year survey of community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus producing Panton-Valentine leukocidin in a French university hospital","volume":"61","author":"Naas","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Hosp. Infect."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"627","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1348-0421.2007.tb03949.x","article-title":"Spread of community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in hospitals in Taipei, Taiwan in 2005, and comparison of its drug resistance with previous hospital-acquired MRSA","volume":"51","author":"Takano","year":"2007","journal-title":"Microbiol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajic.2005.06.006","article-title":"Emergence of community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus USA 300 clone as a cause of health care-associated infections among patients with prosthetic joint infections","volume":"33","author":"Kourbatova","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. J. Infect. Control"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.1086\/499815","article-title":"Emergence of community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus USA300 genotype as a major cause of health care-associated blood stream infections","volume":"42","author":"Seybold","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-0691.2005.01150.x","article-title":"Predominance of staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec (SCCmec) type IV among methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in a Swedish county and presence of unknown SCCmec types with Panton-Valentine leukocidin genes","volume":"11","author":"Berglund","year":"2005","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.01228-06","article-title":"Rapid multiplex PCR assay for identification of USA300 community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates","volume":"45","author":"Bonnstetter","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1113","DOI":"10.1007\/s10096-009-0757-x","article-title":"Clinical and molecular epidemiology of ciprofloxacin-susceptible MRSA encoding PVL in England and Wales","volume":"28","author":"Ellington","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"594","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1304.061316","article-title":"Global distribution of Panton-Valentine leukocidin--positive methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, 2006","volume":"13","author":"Tristan","year":"2007","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"981","DOI":"10.1271\/bbb.68.981","article-title":"Bacterial two-component and hetero-heptameric pore-forming cytolytic toxins: Structures, pore-forming mechanism, and organization of the genes","volume":"68","author":"Kaneko","year":"2004","journal-title":"Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1960","DOI":"10.1271\/bbb.61.1960","article-title":"Panton-valentine leukocidin genes in a phage-like particle isolated from mitomycin C-treated Staphylococcus aureus V8 (ATCC 49775)","volume":"61","author":"Kaneko","year":"1997","journal-title":"Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-1119(98)00278-9","article-title":"Complete nucleotide sequence and molecular characterization of the temperate staphylococcal bacteriophage phiPVL carrying Panton-Valentine leukocidin genes","volume":"215","author":"Kaneko","year":"1998","journal-title":"Gene"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2631","DOI":"10.1271\/bbb.64.2631","article-title":"Prophage, phiPV83-pro, carrying panton-valentine leukocidin genes, on the Staphylococcus aureus P83 chromosome: Comparative analysis of the genome structures of phiPV83-pro, phiPVL, phi11, and other phages","volume":"64","author":"Zou","year":"2000","journal-title":"Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1111\/jtm.12047","article-title":"Major West Indies MRSA clones in human beings: Do they travel with their hosts?","volume":"20","author":"Chroboczek","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Travel. Med."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1007\/s10096-011-1339-2","article-title":"Molecular characterization of Staphylococcus aureus from outpatients in the Caribbean reveals the presence of pandemic clones","volume":"31","author":"Uhlemann","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1123","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2019.01123","article-title":"High Prevalence of USA300 Among Clinical Isolates of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus on St. Kitts and Nevis, West Indies","volume":"10","author":"Guardabassi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1186\/2047-2994-1-2","article-title":"USA300 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Cuba","volume":"1","author":"Hopman","year":"2012","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Resist. Infect. Control"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diagmicrobio.2014.10.012","article-title":"Molecular epidemiology of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus from 4 Cuban hospitals","volume":"81","author":"Stojanov","year":"2015","journal-title":"Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2016.12.001","article-title":"MRSA USA300, USA300-LV and ST5-IV in pigs, Cuba","volume":"49","author":"Baez","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100659","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nmni.2020.100659","article-title":"Prevalence, molecular characteristics and antimicrobial susceptibility patterns of MRSA in hospitalized and nonhospitalized patients in Barbados","volume":"35","author":"Chase","year":"2020","journal-title":"New Microbes New Infect."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2014.08.007","article-title":"Molecular epidemiology of Staphylococcus aureus in post-earthquake northern Haiti","volume":"29","author":"Rosenthal","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Monecke, S., Stieber, B., Roberts, R., Akpaka, P.E., Slickers, P., and Ehricht, R. (2014). Population structure of Staphylococcus aureus from Trinidad & Tobago. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0089120"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1186\/1752-1947-5-157","article-title":"Methicillin sensitive Staphylococcus aureus producing Panton-Valentine leukocidin toxin in Trinidad & Tobago: A case report","volume":"5","author":"Akpaka","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Med. Case Rep."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1497","DOI":"10.1007\/s10096-011-1469-6","article-title":"Molecular epidemiology and characterisation of MRSA isolates from Trinidad and Tobago","volume":"31","author":"Monecke","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"544","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2007.03.004","article-title":"Molecular epidemiology of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates from regional hospitals in Trinidad and Tobago","volume":"11","author":"Akpaka","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Orrett, F.A., and Land, M. (2006). Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus prevalence: Current susceptibility patterns in Trinidad. BMC Infect. Dis., 6.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2334-6-83"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2006.04.005","article-title":"Antimicrobial resistance in clinical isolates of Staphylococcus aureus from hospital and community sources in southern Jamaica","volume":"11","author":"Brown","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"509","article-title":"The detection of mupirocin resistance and the distribution of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus at the University Hospital of the West Indies, Jamaica","volume":"59","author":"Nicholson","year":"2010","journal-title":"West Indian Med. J."},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"20","article-title":"Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus","volume":"48","author":"Swanston","year":"1999","journal-title":"West Indian Med. J."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1186\/1476-0711-5-16","article-title":"Prevalence and antimicrobial susceptibility pattern of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates from Trinidad & Tobago","volume":"5","author":"Akpaka","year":"2006","journal-title":"Ann. Clin. Microbiol. Antimicrob."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Bodonaik, N.C., and Nicholson, A. (2002). Methicillin resistance in Strains of Staphylococcus aureus at the University Hospital of the West Indies, Jamaica, 1980\u20131997. Int. Sci. Exc., 75."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Monecke, S., Jatzwauk, L., M\u00fcller, E., Nitschke, H., Pfohl, K., Slickers, P., Reissig, A., Ruppelt-Lorz, A., and Ehricht, R. (2016). Diversity of SCCmec elements in Staphylococcus aureus as observed in South-Eastern Germany. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0162654"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3605","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00058-10","article-title":"Cloning and Occurrence of czrC, a Gene Conferring Cadmium and Zinc Resistance in Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus CC398 Isolates","volume":"54","author":"Cavaco","year":"2010","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"816","DOI":"10.1038\/nm.2692","article-title":"MRSA epidemic linked to a quickly spreading colonization and virulence determinant","volume":"18","author":"Li","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"888","DOI":"10.1128\/JB.01255-09","article-title":"Genome Sequence of a Recently Emerged, Highly Transmissible, Multi-Antibiotic- and Antiseptic-Resistant Variant of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Sequence Type 239 (TW)","volume":"192","author":"Holden","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_53","first-page":"238","article-title":"Methicillin resistance among Trinidadian isolates of community and hospital strains of Staphylococcus aureus and their patterns of resistance to non-beta-lactam antibiotics","volume":"52","author":"Orrett","year":"1999","journal-title":"Jpn. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.9734\/BMRJ\/2015\/21376","article-title":"Molecular Analysis of Staphylococcus aureus Infections in Trinidad and Tobago","volume":"10","author":"Akpaka","year":"2015","journal-title":"Br. Microbiol. Res. J."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.7727\/wimj.2016.311","article-title":"Prevalence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in the surgical wards of the Port-of-Spain General Hospital, Trinidad and Tobago","volume":"67","author":"Ramdass","year":"2018","journal-title":"West Indian Med. J."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"316","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jiph.2016.05.010","article-title":"Molecular characterization of antimicrobial resistance genes against Staphylococcus aureus isolates from Trinidad and Tobago","volume":"10","author":"Akpaka","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Infect. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2018.04.3768","article-title":"Prevalent virulent genes among methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates from community settings in Trinidad and Tobago","volume":"73","author":"Vire","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Smyth, D.S., McDougal, L.K., Gran, F.W., Manoharan, A., Enright, M.C., Song, J.H., de Lencastre, H., and Robinson, D.A. (2010). Population structure of a hybrid clonal group of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, ST239-MRSA-III. PLoS ONE, 5.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0008582"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1436","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2018.01436","article-title":"Molecular typing of ST239-MRSA-III from diverse geographic locations and the evolution of the SCCmec III element during its intercontinental spread","volume":"9","author":"Monecke","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2070","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.49.5.2070-2083.2005","article-title":"Seven novel variants of the staphylococcal chromosomal cassette mec in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates from Ireland","volume":"49","author":"Shore","year":"2005","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00336-13","DOI":"10.1128\/genomeA.00336-13","article-title":"Complete Genome Sequence of Staphylococcus aureus Strain M1, a Unique t024-ST8-IVa Danish Methicillin-Resistant S. aureus Clone","volume":"1","author":"Worning","year":"2013","journal-title":"Genome Announc."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00098-17","DOI":"10.1128\/genomeA.00098-17","article-title":"Draft Genome Sequences of 14 Staphylococcus aureus Sequence Type 5 Isolates from California, USA","volume":"5","author":"Hau","year":"2017","journal-title":"Genome Announc."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1577","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2958.2003.03671.x","article-title":"Genome-based analysis of virulence genes in a non-biofilm-forming Staphylococcus epidermidis strain (ATCC 12228)","volume":"49","author":"Zhang","year":"2003","journal-title":"Mol. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_64","first-page":"639","article-title":"Test organisms for antibiotic microbial assays","volume":"7","author":"Bowman","year":"1957","journal-title":"Antibiot Chemother"},{"key":"ref_65","first-page":"231","article-title":"The neotype strain for Staphylococcus epidermidis (Winslow and Winslow 1908) Evans 1916","volume":"18","author":"Hugh","year":"1968","journal-title":"Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2018.02.024","article-title":"Variability of SCCmec elements in livestock-associated CC398 MRSA","volume":"217","author":"Monecke","year":"2018","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jgar.2020.12.008","article-title":"Clonal diversity of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) from bloodstream infections in northern Japan: Identification of spermidine N-acetyltransferase gene (speG) in staphylococcal cassette chromosomes (SCCs) associated with type II and IV SCCmec","volume":"24","author":"Aung","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Glob. Antimicrob. Resist."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2958.2011.07809.x","article-title":"Arginine catabolic mobile element encoded speG abrogates the unique hypersensitivity of Staphylococcus aureus to exogenous polyamines","volume":"82","author":"Joshi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mol. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2177","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMc0804021","article-title":"MRSA USA300 clone and VREF--a U.S.-Colombian connection?","volume":"359","author":"Arias","year":"2008","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1609","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiw418","article-title":"Global Spread of the Community-Associated Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus USA300 Latin American Variant","volume":"214","author":"Planet","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1485","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2018.01485","article-title":"Intra-Hospital, Inter-Hospital and Intercontinental Spread of ST78 MRSA From Two Neonatal Intensive Care Unit Outbreaks Established Using Whole-Genome Sequencing","volume":"9","author":"Earls","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"fiy052","DOI":"10.1093\/femsec\/fiy052","article-title":"The human clone ST22 SCCmec IV methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolated from swine herds and wild primates in Nepal: Is man the common source?","volume":"94","author":"Roberts","year":"2018","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2505","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2019.02505","article-title":"MRSA Strains in Nepalese Rhesus Macaques (Macaca mulatta) and Their Environment","volume":"10","author":"Roberts","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1007\/s10096-019-03695-9","article-title":"Genotyping of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus from sepsis patients in Pakistan and detection of antibodies against staphylococcal virulence factors","volume":"39","author":"Monecke","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"970924","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2022.970924","article-title":"Diversity of clonal complex 22 methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates in Kuwait hospitals","volume":"13","author":"Boswihi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18551","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-75565-w","article-title":"Genotyping of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus from the United Arab Emirates","volume":"10","author":"Senok","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.02285-12","article-title":"Rapid detection of Panton-Valentine leukocidin in Staphylococcus aureus cultures by use of a lateral flow assay based on monoclonal antibodies","volume":"51","author":"Monecke","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"633","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-0691.2010.03320.x","article-title":"Epidemiology of methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus lineages in five major African towns: High prevalence of Panton-Valentine leukocidin genes","volume":"17","author":"Breurec","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Egyir, B., Guardabassi, L., Esson, J., Nielsen, S.S., Newman, M.J., Addo, K.K., and Larsen, A.R. (2014). Insights into nasal carriage of Staphylococcus aureus in an urban and a rural community in Ghana. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0096119"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Egyir, B., Guardabassi, L., Sorum, M., Nielsen, S.S., Kolekang, A., Frimpong, E., Addo, K.K., Newman, M.J., and Larsen, A.R. (2014). Molecular epidemiology and antimicrobial susceptibility of clinical Staphylococcus aureus from healthcare institutions in Ghana. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0089716"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1963","DOI":"10.1007\/s10096-016-2748-z","article-title":"Molecular epidemiology of Staphylococcus aureus from Lambarene, Gabon","volume":"35","author":"Okuda","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1160","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2015.01160","article-title":"An assessment on DNA microarray and sequence-based methods for the characterization of methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus from Nigeria","volume":"6","author":"Shittu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"881","DOI":"10.1093\/gbe\/evr078","article-title":"A very early-branching Staphylococcus aureus lineage lacking the carotenoid pigment staphyloxanthin","volume":"3","author":"Holt","year":"2011","journal-title":"Genome Biol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"747","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2018.08.017","article-title":"High mortality impact of Staphylococcus argenteus on patients with community-onset staphylococcal bacteraemia","volume":"52","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"502","DOI":"10.1080\/21505594.2019.1620062","article-title":"Staphylococcus argenteus and Staphylococcus schweitzeri are cytotoxic to human cells in vitro due to high expression of alpha-hemolysin Hla","volume":"10","author":"Johansson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Virulence"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1064","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2019.02.028","article-title":"Implications of identifying the recently defined members of the Staphylococcus aureus complex S. argenteus and S. schweitzeri: A position paper of members of the ESCMID Study Group for Staphylococci and Staphylococcal Diseases (ESGS)","volume":"25","author":"Becker","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21154","DOI":"10.2807\/1560-7917.ES2015.20.23.21154","article-title":"Community-acquired infections due to Staphylococcus argenteus lineage isolates harbouring the Panton-Valentine leucocidin, France, 2014","volume":"20","author":"Dupieux","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eurosurveillance"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3720","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.00836-06","article-title":"Use of a single-nucleotide polymorphism genotyping system to demonstrate the unique epidemiology of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in remote aboriginal communities","volume":"44","author":"McDonald","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"968","DOI":"10.1099\/jmm.0.000760","article-title":"Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus argenteus misidentified as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus emerging in western Sweden","volume":"67","author":"Karami","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1574-695X.2008.00426.x","article-title":"Assignment of Staphylococcus aureus isolates to clonal complexes based on microarray analysis and pattern recognition","volume":"53","author":"Monecke","year":"2008","journal-title":"FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Senok, A., Monecke, S., Nassar, R., Celiloglu, H., Thyagarajan, S., M\u00fcller, E., and Ehricht, R. (2021). Lateral Flow Immunoassay for the Detection of Panton-Valentine Leukocidin in Staphylococcus aureus from skin and soft tissue infections in the United Arab Emirates. Front. Microbiol., 939.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2021.754523"}],"container-title":["Antibiotics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6382\/12\/6\/1050\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T19:54:59Z","timestamp":1760126099000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6382\/12\/6\/1050"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,14]]},"references-count":91,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,6]]}},"alternative-id":["antibiotics12061050"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/antibiotics12061050","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-6382"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-6382","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,14]]}}}