{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,21]],"date-time":"2026-05-21T16:38:59Z","timestamp":1779381539289,"version":"3.53.1"},"reference-count":100,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,2]],"date-time":"2023-08-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1690934400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Antibiotics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Fungi represent a very important cause of microbial eye infections, especially in tropical and developing countries, as they could cause sight-threating disease, such as keratitis and ocular candidiasis, resulting in irreversible vision loss. Candida species are among the most frequent microorganisms associated with fungal infection. Although Candida albicans is still the most frequently detected organism among Candida subspecies, an important increase in non-albicans species has been reported. Mycotic infections often represent an important diagnostic-clinical problem due to the difficulties in performing the diagnosis and a therapeutic problem due to the limited availability of commercial drugs and the difficult penetration of antifungals into ocular tissues. The ability to form biofilms is another feature that makes Candida a dangerous pathogen. In this review, a summary of the state-of-the-art panorama about candida ocular pathology, diagnosis, and treatment has been conducted. Moreover, we also focused on new prospective natural compounds, including nanoparticles, micelles, and nanocarriers, as promising drug delivery systems to better cure ocular fungal and biofilm-related infections. The effect of the drug combination has also been examined from the perspective of increasing efficacy and improving the course of infections caused by Candida which are difficult to fight.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics12081277","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,2]],"date-time":"2023-08-02T11:04:38Z","timestamp":1690974278000},"page":"1277","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Candida Biofilm Eye Infection: Main Aspects and Advance in Novel Agents as Potential Source of Treatment"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0446-2846","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francesco","family":"Petrillo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Sciences, Eye Clinic, Turin University, 10126 Turin, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marica","family":"Sinoca","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, University of Naples \u2018Federico II\u2019, Via Cinthia, 80126 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Antonio Maria","family":"Fea","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Sciences, Eye Clinic, Turin University, 10126 Turin, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0174-0209","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marilena","family":"Galdiero","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Campania \u201cLuigi Vanvitelli\u201d, 81100 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4981-8837","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Angela","family":"Maione","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, University of Naples \u2018Federico II\u2019, Via Cinthia, 80126 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8116-0839","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emilia","family":"Galdiero","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, University of Naples \u2018Federico II\u2019, Via Cinthia, 80126 Naples, Italy"},{"name":"NBFC\u2014National Biodiversity Future Center, 90133 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6805-0408","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marco","family":"Guida","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, University of Naples \u2018Federico II\u2019, Via Cinthia, 80126 Naples, Italy"},{"name":"NBFC\u2014National Biodiversity Future Center, 90133 Palermo, Italy"},{"name":"Center for Studies on Bioinspired Agro-Environmental Technology (BAT Center), 80055 Portici, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1368-6729","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michele","family":"Reibaldi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Sciences, Eye Clinic, Turin University, 10126 Turin, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1475-1313.2000.tb01121.x","article-title":"The microbiology of the eye","volume":"20","author":"Armstrong","year":"2000","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Physiol. Opt."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127413","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micres.2023.127413","article-title":"Recent advancements in nanotechnology-based bacteriophage delivery strategies against bacterial ocular infections","volume":"273","author":"Patil","year":"2023","journal-title":"Microbiol. Res."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1038\/eye.2011.275","article-title":"Diagnosis of infectious diseases of the eye","volume":"26","author":"Sharma","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eye"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"(1977). Fungal infection of the eye. Br. Msed. J., 1, 667\u2013668.","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.1.6062.667-a"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.3368\/aoj.61.1.147","article-title":"Cornea: Fundamentals, Diagnosis, and Management","volume":"61","author":"Krachmer","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. Orthopt. J."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.17.2.255-267.2004","article-title":"Candida infections of medical devices","volume":"17","author":"Kojic","year":"2004","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"235","article-title":"Comparative analysis of biofilm formation by Candida albicans and Candida krusei in different types of contact lenses","volume":"85","author":"Fritsch","year":"2021","journal-title":"Arq. Bras. Oftalmol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1113","DOI":"10.17219\/acem\/50572","article-title":"Mycotic Infections of the Eye","volume":"24","author":"Biernat","year":"2015","journal-title":"Adv. Clin. Exp. Med. Off. Organ. Wroc. Med. Univ."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2461","DOI":"10.1016\/j.transproceed.2011.06.018","article-title":"Antifungal therapy","volume":"43","year":"2011","journal-title":"Transplant. Proc."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1007\/s00203-023-03536-6","article-title":"Eye fungal infections: A mini review","volume":"205","author":"Reginatto","year":"2023","journal-title":"Arch. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e49","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(20)30448-5","article-title":"The global incidence and diagnosis of fungal keratitis","volume":"21","author":"Brown","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e307","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfo.2017.08.001","article-title":"Fungal keratitis","volume":"40","author":"Bourcier","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Fr. D\u2019Ophtalmol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.3341\/kjo.2017.0036","article-title":"Endophthalmitis","volume":"31","author":"Sheu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Korean J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Haseeb, A.A., Elhusseiny, A.M., Siddiqui, M.Z., Ahmad, K.T., and Sallam, A.B. (2021). Fungal endophthalmitis: A comprehensive review. J. Fungi, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/jof7110996"},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"e30801","article-title":"A Case of Panophthalmitis Secondary to Odontogenic Maxillary Sinusitis","volume":"14","author":"Garrett","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.5935\/0004-2749.20220033","article-title":"An\u00e1lise comparativa da forma\u00e7\u00e3o de biofilmes, por Candida albicans e Candida krusei, em diferentes tipos de lentes de contato","volume":"85","author":"Fritsch","year":"2022","journal-title":"Arq. Bras. Oftalmol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tim.2011.02.003","article-title":"Adherence and biofilm formation of non-Candida albicans Candida species","volume":"19","author":"Silva","year":"2011","journal-title":"Trends Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Masoumi, A., Soleimani, M., Azizkhani, M., Izadi, A., Cheraqpour, K., Tabatabaei, S.A., Khodavaisy, S., and Aminzadeh, M. (Ocul. Immunol. Inflamm., 2023). Clinical Features, Risk Factors, and Management of Candida keratitis, Ocul. Immunol. Inflamm., online ahead of print.","DOI":"10.1080\/09273948.2023.2203752"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.1111\/ceo.14113","article-title":"Infectious keratitis: A review","volume":"50","author":"Khoo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"758","DOI":"10.1016\/j.survophthal.2021.08.002","article-title":"Fungal keratitis: Mechanisms of infection and management strategies","volume":"67","author":"Donovan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Surv. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1554","DOI":"10.1136\/bjo.2005.076315","article-title":"Characteristic clinical features as an aid to the diagnosis of suppurative keratitis caused by filamentous fungi","volume":"89","author":"Thomas","year":"2005","journal-title":"Br. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1111\/1469-0691.12126","article-title":"Mycotic keratitis: Epidemiology, diagnosis and management","volume":"19","author":"Thomas","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ram\u00edrez-Soto, M.C., and Bonifaz, A. (2022). Ocular Fungal Infections. J. Fungi, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/jof8101078"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"466","DOI":"10.1136\/bjo.2007.133405","article-title":"Ocular candidiasis: A review","volume":"92","author":"Shah","year":"2008","journal-title":"Br. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1111\/1469-0691.12118","article-title":"Endophthalmitis","volume":"19","author":"Durand","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/cir355","article-title":"Ocular manifestations of candidemia","volume":"53","author":"Rothova","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-9343(87)90413-X","article-title":"Retinal lesions as clues to disseminated bacterial and candidal infections: Frequency, natural history, and etiology","volume":"82","author":"King","year":"2003","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2021.07.015","article-title":"American Academy of Ophthalmology recommendations on screening for endogenous Candida endophthalmitis","volume":"129","author":"Breazzano","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Son, H.J., Kim, M.J., Lee, S., Choi, S., Jung, K.H., Jung, J., Chong, Y.P., Kim, S.H., Choi, S.H., and Kim, Y.S. (2019). Risk factors and outcomes of patients with ocular involvement of candidemia. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0222356"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"687","DOI":"10.1016\/j.oret.2020.10.007","article-title":"Risk factors for endogenous endophthalmitis in hospitalized patients with Candida fungemia","volume":"5","author":"Uppuluri","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ophthalmol. Retin."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"625","DOI":"10.1128\/jcm.24.4.625-628.1986","article-title":"Outbreak of Candida parapsilosis endophthalmitis after cataract extraction and intraocular lens implantation","volume":"24","author":"McCray","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sakamoto, T., Gotoh, K., Hashimoto, K., Tanamachi, C., and Watanabe, H. (2022). Risk Factors and Clinical Characteristics of Patients with Ocular Candidiasis. J. Fungi, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/jof8050497"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4201","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.17-22003","article-title":"Candida species from eye infections: Drug susceptibility, virulence factors, and molecular characterization","volume":"58","author":"Ranjith","year":"2017","journal-title":"Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"myac099","DOI":"10.1093\/mmy\/myac099","article-title":"Molecular characterization of fungal Endophthalmitis and keratitis caused by yeasts","volume":"61","author":"Belanger","year":"2023","journal-title":"Med. Mycol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"538","DOI":"10.4103\/0255-0857.167331","article-title":"Ocular infections caused by Candida species: Type of species, in vitro susceptibility and treatment outcome","volume":"33","author":"Motukupally","year":"2015","journal-title":"Indian. J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ueda, T., Takesue, Y., Tokimatsu, I., Miyazaki, T., Nakada-Motokawa, N., Nagao, M., Nakajima, K., Mikamo, H., Yamagishi, Y., and Kasahara, K. (2019). The incidence of endophthalmitis or macular involvement and the necessity of a routine ophthalmic examination in patients with candidemia. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0216956"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2477","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2018.02477","article-title":"Differences in ocular complications between Candida albicans and non-albicans Candida infection analyzed by epidemiology and a mouse ocular candidiasis model","volume":"9","author":"Abe","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciy381","article-title":"A guide to utilization of the microbiology laboratory for diagnosis of infectious diseases: 2018 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America and the American Society for Microbiology","volume":"67","author":"Miller","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"916","DOI":"10.1111\/myc.12822","article-title":"Fungal keratitis: An overview of clinical and laboratory aspects","volume":"61","author":"Mahmoudi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mycoses"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2010.05.018","article-title":"Role of confocal microscopy in the diagnosis of fungal and acanthamoeba keratitis","volume":"118","author":"Vaddavalli","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"698","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaophthalmol.2019.0733","article-title":"Utility of ophthalmologic screening for patients with Candida bloodstream infections: A systematic review","volume":"137","author":"Breazzano","year":"2019","journal-title":"JAMA Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8869590","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/8869590","article-title":"Endogenous endophthalmitis: A review of case series published between 2011 and 2020","volume":"2020","author":"Danielescu","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lupia, T., Corcione, S., Fea, A.M., Reibaldi, M., Fallico, M., Petrillo, F., Galdiero, M., Scabini, S., Polito, M.S., and Ciabatti, U. (2020). Exogenous fungal endophthalmitis: Clues to Aspergillus Aetiology with a pharmacological perspective. Microorganisms, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms9010074"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"675","DOI":"10.1586\/14787210.4.4.675","article-title":"Endogenous candida endophthalmitis","volume":"4","author":"Sallam","year":"2006","journal-title":"Exp. Rev. Anti-Infect. Ther."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0007019","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00070-19","article-title":"Practical Guidance for Clinical Microbiology Laboratories: Diagnosis of Ocular Infections","volume":"34","author":"Leal","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Danielescu, C., Stanca, H.T., Iorga, R.-E., Darabus, D.-M., and Potop, V. (2022). The diagnosis and treatment of fungal endophthalmitis: An update. Diagnostics, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics12030679"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Konduri, R., Saiabhilash, C.R., and Shivaji, S. (2021). Biofilm-forming potential of ocular fluid Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis on ex vivo human corneas from attachment to dispersal phase. Microorganisms, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms9061124"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1351\/PAC-REC-10-12-04","article-title":"Terminology for biorelated polymers and applications (IUPAC Recommendations 2012)","volume":"84","author":"Vert","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pure Appl. Chem."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5385","DOI":"10.1128\/JB.183.18.5385-5394.2001","article-title":"Biofilm formation by the fungal pathogen Candida albicans: Development, architecture, and drug resistance","volume":"183","author":"Chandra","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"163","article-title":"Characteristics of biofilm formation by Candida albicans","volume":"18","author":"Ramage","year":"2001","journal-title":"Rev. Iberoam. Micol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"999","DOI":"10.1099\/jmm.0.46569-0","article-title":"Biofilm matrix of Candida albicans and Candida tropicalis: Chemical composition and role in drug resistance","volume":"55","author":"Douglas","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1007\/5584_2016_6","article-title":"The extracellular matrix of fungal biofilms","volume":"Volume 931","author":"Mitchell","year":"2016","journal-title":"Fungal Biofilms and related infections: Advances in Microbiology, Infectious Diseases and Public Health"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100126","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bioflm.2023.100126","article-title":"Antifungal therapy of Candida biofilms: Past, present and future","volume":"5","author":"Ajetunmobi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biofilm"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1007\/s00294-023-01263-5","article-title":"Morphogenic plasticity: The pathogenic attribute of Candida albicans","volume":"69","author":"Prasad","year":"2023","journal-title":"Curr. Genet."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1038\/eye.1995.16","article-title":"Biofilm-related infections in ophthalmology","volume":"9","author":"Elder","year":"1995","journal-title":"Eye"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1097\/OPX.0b013e3180439c3e","article-title":"Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection and inflammation during contact lens wear: A review","volume":"84","author":"Willcox","year":"2007","journal-title":"Optom. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Anju, V., Busi, S., Imchen, M., Kumavath, R., Mohan, M.S., Salim, S.A., Subhaswaraj, P., and Dyavaiah, M. (2022). Polymicrobial Infections and Biofilms: Clinical Significance and Eradication Strategies. Antibiotics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics11121731"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ftac010","DOI":"10.1093\/femspd\/ftac010","article-title":"Polymicrobial interaction in biofilm: Mechanistic insights","volume":"80","author":"Kulshrestha","year":"2022","journal-title":"Pathog. Dis."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mendonca, J.R., Dantas, L.R., and Tuon, F.F. (Ophthalmic Physiol. Opt., 2023). Activity of multipurpose contact lens solutions against Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Serratia marcescens and Candida albicans biofilms, Ophthalmic Physiol. Opt., online ahead of print.","DOI":"10.1111\/opo.13189"},{"key":"ref_60","first-page":"75","article-title":"Fungal keratitis","volume":"64","author":"Resende","year":"2001","journal-title":"Arq. Bras. Oftalmol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2119","DOI":"10.3390\/ma16052119","article-title":"The Ionization of Polymeric Materials Accelerates Protein Deposition on Hydrogel Contact Lens Material","volume":"16","author":"Ahn","year":"2023","journal-title":"Materials"},{"key":"ref_62","first-page":"14","article-title":"Factors influencing bacterial adhesion to contact lenses","volume":"18","author":"Dutta","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mol. Vis."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Campolo, A., Pifer, R., Shannon, P., and Crary, M. (2022). Microbial Adherence to Contact Lenses and Pseudomonas aeruginosa as a Model Organism for Microbial Keratitis. Pathogens, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens11111383"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4450","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.12-9848","article-title":"Characterization of Fusarium keratitis outbreak isolates: Contribution of biofilms to antimicrobial resistance and pathogenesis","volume":"53","author":"Mukherjee","year":"2012","journal-title":"Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3646","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmb.2015.09.002","article-title":"The limitations of in vitro experimentation in understanding biofilms and chronic infection","volume":"427","author":"Roberts","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Urwin, L., Okurowska, K., Crowther, G., Roy, S., Garg, P., Karunakaran, E., MacNeil, S., Partridge, L.J., Green, L.R., and Monk, P.N. (2020). Corneal infection models: Tools to investigate the role of biofilms in bacterial keratitis. Cells, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells9112450"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtos.2021.12.001","article-title":"Fungal keratitis: A review of clinical presentations, treatment strategies and outcomes","volume":"24","author":"Sharma","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ocul. Surf."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1678","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2017.05.012","article-title":"Update on the management of infectious keratitis","volume":"124","author":"Austin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1711","DOI":"10.1592\/phco.27.12.1711","article-title":"Candida endophthalmitis: Focus on culture and future antifungal treatment options","volume":"27","author":"Khan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pharmacotherapy"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1092","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciac233","article-title":"Screening for ocular candidiasis among patients with candidemia: Is it time to change practice?","volume":"75","author":"Eller","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1080\/08820538.2016.1228396","article-title":"The role of vitrectomy in the management of fungal endophthalmitis","volume":"32","author":"Chee","year":"2017","journal-title":"Semin. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"(2023, July 05). Eye Care in the Intensive Care Unit (The Royal College of Ophthalmologists, Ophthalmic Services Guidance). Available online: https:\/\/www.rcophth.ac.uk\/resources-listing\/eye-care-in-the-intensive-care-unit-icu\/."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.survophthal.2018.12.003","article-title":"The persistent dilemma of microbial keratitis: Global burden, diagnosis, and antimicrobial resistance","volume":"64","author":"Ung","year":"2019","journal-title":"Surv. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2173","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2016.02173","article-title":"Azole antifungal resistance in Candida albicans and emerging non-albicans Candida species","volume":"7","author":"Whaley","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2206437","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.202206437","article-title":"Visualized Gallium\/Lyticase-Integrated Antifungal Strategy for Fungal Keratitis Treatment","volume":"34","author":"He","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4939-6515-1_2","article-title":"The Changing Epidemiology of Invasive Fungal Infections","volume":"1508","author":"Enoch","year":"2017","journal-title":"Methods Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e383","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(17)30316-X","article-title":"The global problem of antifungal resistance: Prevalence, mechanisms, and management","volume":"17","author":"Perlin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e9419","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.9419","article-title":"Biofilm modelling on the contact lenses and comparison of the in vitro activities of multipurpose lens solutions and antibiotics","volume":"8","author":"Dosler","year":"2020","journal-title":"PeerJ"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"787644","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2021.787644","article-title":"Considerations for Polymers Used in Ocular Drug Delivery","volume":"8","author":"Allyn","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Med."},{"key":"ref_80","unstructured":"Ingle, A.P., Paralikar, P., Grupenmacher, A., Padovani, F.H., Ferrer, M.T., Rai, M., and Alves, M. (2017). Nanotechnology Applied to Pharmaceutical Technology, Springer."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"380","DOI":"10.1016\/j.survophthal.2019.02.007","article-title":"Pharmacologic therapy of mycotic keratitis","volume":"64","author":"Sahay","year":"2019","journal-title":"Surv. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"850757","DOI":"10.3389\/fchem.2022.850757","article-title":"Recent developments of nanostructures for the ocular delivery of natural compounds","volume":"10","author":"Razavi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Chem."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.3109\/14764172.2015.1022189","article-title":"Comparative histometric analysis of the effects of high-intensity focused ultrasound and radiofrequency on skin","volume":"17","author":"Suh","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Cosmet. Laser Ther."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"518","DOI":"10.4103\/ijo.IJO_1474_22","article-title":"Evaluation of liposomal amphotericin B for the treatment of fungal keratitis in a tertiary eye care hospital","volume":"71","author":"Kumar","year":"2023","journal-title":"Indian. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Begines, B., Ortiz, T., P\u00e9rez-Aranda, M., Mart\u00ednez, G., Merinero, M., Arg\u00fcelles-Arias, F., and Alcudia, A. (2020). Polymeric nanoparticles for drug delivery: Recent developments and future prospects. Nanomaterials, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/nano10071403"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Almehmady, A.M., El-Say, K.M., Mubarak, M.A., Alghamdi, H.A., Somali, N.A., Sirwi, A., Algarni, R., and Ahmed, T.A. (2023). Enhancing the Antifungal Activity and Ophthalmic Transport of Fluconazole from PEGylated Polycaprolactone Loaded Nanoparticles. Polymers, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym15010209"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actbio.2021.04.014","article-title":"Contact lenses coated with hybrid multifunctional ternary nanocoatings (Phytomolecule-coated ZnO nanoparticles:Gallic Acid:Tobramycin) for the treatment of bacterial and fungal keratitis","volume":"128","author":"Khan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Biomater."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alakkad, A., Stapleton, P., Schlosser, C., Murdan, S., Odunze, U., Schatzlein, A., and Uchegbu, I.F. (2022). Amphotericin b polymer nanoparticles show efficacy against candida species biofilms. Pathogens, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens11010073"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"662","DOI":"10.1007\/s13346-021-00974-x","article-title":"Posaconazole micelles for ocular delivery: In vitro permeation, ocular irritation and antifungal activity studies","volume":"12","author":"Durgun","year":"2022","journal-title":"Drug Deliv. Transl. Res."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.3934\/microbiol.2022019","article-title":"Biofilms: Formation, drug resistance and alternatives to conventional approaches","volume":"8","author":"Mirghani","year":"2022","journal-title":"AIMS Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shah, S.T., Yehye, W.A., Saad, O., Simarani, K., Chowdhury, Z.Z., Alhadi, A.A., and Al-Ani, L.A. (2017). Surface functionalization of iron oxide nanoparticles with gallic acid as potential antioxidant and antimicrobial agents. Nanomaterials, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/nano7100306"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2945","DOI":"10.1080\/10717544.2022.2120926","article-title":"Pronounced capping effect of olaminosomes as nanostructured platforms in ocular candidiasis management","volume":"29","author":"Ahmed","year":"2022","journal-title":"Drug Deliv."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4579","DOI":"10.1080\/14786419.2020.1739042","article-title":"Phytochemical composition and biological activities of Orobanche crenata Forssk: A review","volume":"35","author":"Genovese","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Prod. Res."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"D\u2019Angeli, F., Guadagni, F., Genovese, C., Nicolosi, D., Trovato Salinaro, A., Spampinato, M., Mannino, G., Lo Furno, D., Petronio Petronio, G., and Ronsisvalle, S. (2021). Anti-candidal activity of the parasitic plant orobanche crenata forssk. Antibiotics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics10111373"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saraiva, S.M., Mart\u00edn-Banderas, L., and Dur\u00e1n-Lobato, M. (2023). Cannabinoid-Based Ocular Therapies and Formulations. Pharmaceutics, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics15041077"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Di Onofrio, V., Gesuele, R., Maione, A., Liguori, G., Liguori, R., Guida, M., Nigro, R., and Galdiero, E. (2019). Prevention of Pseudomonas aeruginosa Biofilm Formation on Soft Contact Lenses by Allium sativum Fermented Extract (BGE) and Cannabinol Oil Extract (CBD). Antibiotics, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics8040258"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajo.2004.08.077","article-title":"Management of endogenous fungal endophthalmitis with voriconazole and caspofungin","volume":"139","author":"Breit","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"801","DOI":"10.1097\/ICO.0000000000002306","article-title":"Candida keratitis: Epidemiology, management, and clinical outcomes","volume":"39","author":"Qiao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cornea"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jiang, T., Tang, J., Wu, Z., Sun, Y., Tan, J., and Yang, L. (2020). The combined utilization of Chlorhexidine and Voriconazole or Natamycin to combat Fusarium infections. BMC Microbiol., 20.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12866-020-01960-y"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"D\u00edaz-Tom\u00e9, V., Bendicho-Lavilla, C., Garc\u00eda-Otero, X., Varela-Fern\u00e1ndez, R., Mart\u00edn-Pastor, M., Llovo-Taboada, J., Alonso-Alonso, P., Aguiar, P., Gonz\u00e1lez-Barcia, M., and Fern\u00e1ndez-Ferreiro, A. (2023). Antifungal Combination Eye Drops for Fungal Keratitis Treatment. Pharmaceutics, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics15010035"}],"container-title":["Antibiotics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6382\/12\/8\/1277\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T20:24:44Z","timestamp":1760127884000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6382\/12\/8\/1277"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,2]]},"references-count":100,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8]]}},"alternative-id":["antibiotics12081277"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/antibiotics12081277","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-6382"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-6382","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,2]]}}}