{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]],"date-time":"2026-06-30T04:16:21Z","timestamp":1782792981498,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":81,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,29]],"date-time":"2024-02-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1709164800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Antibiotics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background and aim: Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a chronic issue of our Westernized society, mainly because of the uncontrolled and improper use of antimicrobials. The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has triggered and expanded AMR diffusion all over the world, and its clinical and therapeutic features have changed. Thus, we aimed to review evidence from the literature on the definition and causative agents of AMR in the frame of the COVID-19 post-pandemic era. Methods: We conducted a search on PubMed and Medline for original articles, reviews, meta-analyses, and case series using the following keywords, their acronyms, and their associations: antibiotics, antimicrobial resistance, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV2), COVID-19 pandemic, personal protective equipment. Results: AMR had a significant rise in incidence both in in-hospital and outpatient populations (ranging from 5 up to 50%) worldwide, but with a variegated profile according to the germ and microorganism considered. Not only bacteria but also fungi have developed more frequent and diffuse AMR. These findings are explained by the increased use and misuse of antibiotics and preventive measures during the first waves of the SARS-CoV2 pandemic, especially in hospitalized patients. Subsequently, the reduction in and end of the lockdown and the use of personal protective equipment have allowed for the indiscriminate circulation of resistant microorganisms from low-income countries to the rest of the world with the emergence of new multi- and polyresistant organisms. However, there is not a clear association between COVID-19 and AMR changes in the post-pandemic period. Conclusions: AMR in some microorganisms has significantly increased and changed its characteristics during and after the end of the pandemic phase of COVID-19. An integrated supranational monitoring approach to this challenge is warranted in the years to come. In detail, a rational, personalized, and regulated use of antibiotics and antimicrobials is needed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics13030233","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,1]],"date-time":"2024-03-01T03:31:23Z","timestamp":1709263883000},"page":"233","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":22,"title":["Post-Coronavirus Disease 2019 Pandemic Antimicrobial Resistance"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6974-4898","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lucia","family":"Boccabella","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Internal Medicine Unit, Madonna del Soccorso General Hospital, Via Luciano Manara 7, 63074 San Benedetto del Tronto, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elena Gialluca","family":"Palma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Internal Medicine Clinics, Riuniti University Hospital, Polytechnics University of Marche, 60121 Ancona, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5922-1524","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ludovico","family":"Abenavoli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health Sciences, University \u201cMagna Graecia\u201d, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7084-8264","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giuseppe Guido Maria","family":"Scarlata","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health Sciences, University \u201cMagna Graecia\u201d, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mariavirginia","family":"Boni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Vascular Medicine Unit, \u201cC. and G. Mazzoni\u201d General Hospital, 63076 Ascoli Piceno, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8318-0515","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gianluca","family":"Ianiro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Gastroenterology Unit, Fondazione Policlinico Gemelli, Catholic University of Sacred Heart, 00168 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pierangelo","family":"Santori","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Internal Medicine Unit, Madonna del Soccorso General Hospital, Via Luciano Manara 7, 63074 San Benedetto del Tronto, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jan F.","family":"Tack","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Translational Research in GastroIntestinal Disorders (T.A.R.G.I.D.), Gasthuisberg University Hospital, KU Leuven, Herestraat 49, 3000 Leuven, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2101-1118","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emidio","family":"Scarpellini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Internal Medicine Unit, Madonna del Soccorso General Hospital, Via Luciano Manara 7, 63074 San Benedetto del Tronto, Italy"},{"name":"Translational Research in GastroIntestinal Disorders (T.A.R.G.I.D.), Gasthuisberg University Hospital, KU Leuven, Herestraat 49, 3000 Leuven, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2022, February 03). 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