{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,7]],"date-time":"2026-11-07T10:47:49Z","timestamp":1794048469028,"version":"4.8.0"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,27]],"date-time":"2024-11-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1732665600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG), Great Ape Health in Tropical Africa","award":["LE1813\/14-1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LE1813\/14-1"]}]},{"name":"Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG), Great Ape Health in Tropical Africa","award":["LE1813\/14-2"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LE1813\/14-2"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Antibiotics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: Antibiotic-resistant bacteria pose a significant global public health threat that demands serious attention. The proliferation of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is primarily attributed to the overuse of antibiotics in humans, livestock, and the agro-industry. However, it is worth noting that antibiotic-resistant genes (ARGs) can be found in all ecosystems, even in environments where antibiotics have never been utilized. African great apes (AGAs) are our closest living relatives and are known to be susceptible to many of the same pathogens (and other microorganisms) as humans. AGAs could therefore serve as sentinels for human-induced AMR spread into the environment. They can potentially also serve as reservoirs for AMR. AGAs inhabit a range of environments from remote areas with little anthropogenic impact, over habitats that are co-used by AGAs and humans, to captive settings with close human\u2013animal contacts like zoos and sanctuaries. This provides opportunities to study AMR in relation to human interaction. This review examines the literature on AMR in AGAs, identifying knowledge gaps. Results: Of the 16 articles reviewed, 13 focused on wild AGAs in habitats with different degrees of human presence, 2 compared wild and captive apes, and 1 study tested captive apes alone. Ten studies included humans working with or living close to AGA habitats. Despite different methodologies, all studies detected AMR in AGAs. Resistance to beta-lactams was the most common (36%), followed by resistance to aminoglycosides (22%), tetracyclines (15%), fluoroquinolones (10%), sulphonamides (5%), trimethoprim (5%), macrolide (3%), phenicoles (2%) and fosfomycin (1%). Conclusions: While several studies suggest a correlation between increased human contact and higher AMR in AGAs, resistance was also found in relatively pristine habitats. While AGAs clearly encounter bacteria resistant to diverse antibiotics, significant gaps remain in understanding the underlying processes. Comparative studies using standardized methods across different sites would enhance our understanding of the origin and distribution of AMR in AGAs.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics13121140","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,27]],"date-time":"2024-11-27T07:18:42Z","timestamp":1732691922000},"page":"1140","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Antimicrobial Resistance in African Great Apes"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-2065-2413","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Coch Tanguy Floyde","family":"Tanga","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology and Animal Ecology, Research Institute for Tropical Ecology (IRET\/CENAREST), Libreville BP 13354, Gabon"},{"name":"Ecole Doctorale des Grandes Ecoles de Libreville, Libreville BP 3989, Gabon"},{"name":"Helmholtz Institute for One Health, Helmholtz-Centre for Infection Research, Fleischmannstrasse 42, 17489 Greifswald, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0192-5972","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Patrice","family":"Makouloutou-Nzassi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology and Animal Ecology, Research Institute for Tropical Ecology (IRET\/CENAREST), Libreville BP 13354, Gabon"},{"name":"Unit of Research in Health Ecology (URES\/CIRMF), Franceville BP 769, Gabon"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pierre Philippe","family":"Mbehang Nguema","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology and Animal Ecology, Research Institute for Tropical Ecology (IRET\/CENAREST), Libreville BP 13354, Gabon"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ariane","family":"D\u00fcx","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Helmholtz Institute for One Health, Helmholtz-Centre for Infection Research, Fleischmannstrasse 42, 17489 Greifswald, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5254-3347","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Silas","family":"Lendzele Sevidzem","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratoire d\u2019Ecologie des Maladies Transmissibles (LEMAT), Universit\u00e9 Libreville Nord (ULN), Libreville BP 1177, Gabon"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jacques Fran\u00e7ois","family":"Mavoungou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology and Animal Ecology, Research Institute for Tropical Ecology (IRET\/CENAREST), Libreville BP 13354, Gabon"},{"name":"Universit\u00e9 Internationale de Libreville, Libreville BP 20411, Gabon"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fabian H.","family":"Leendertz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Helmholtz Institute for One Health, Helmholtz-Centre for Infection Research, Fleischmannstrasse 42, 17489 Greifswald, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7581-2228","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rodrigue","family":"Mintsa-Nguema","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology and Animal Ecology, Research Institute for Tropical Ecology (IRET\/CENAREST), Libreville BP 13354, Gabon"},{"name":"Ecole Doctorale des Grandes Ecoles de Libreville, Libreville BP 3989, Gabon"},{"name":"Laboratoire d\u2019Ecologie des Maladies Transmissibles (LEMAT), Universit\u00e9 Libreville Nord (ULN), Libreville BP 1177, Gabon"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1007\/s00109-016-1478-0","article-title":"Translational metagenomics and the human resistome: Confronting the menace of the new millennium","volume":"95","author":"Willmann","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1128\/microbiolspec.ARBA-0009-2017","article-title":"Antimicrobial Resistance: A One Health Perspective","volume":"6","author":"McEwen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Microbiol. Spectr."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.4102\/ajlm.v7i2.830","article-title":"Africa Centres for Disease Control and Prevention\u2019s framework for antimicrobial resistance control in Africa","volume":"7","author":"Varma","year":"2018","journal-title":"Afr. J. Lab. Med."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.4103\/2045-080X.186181","article-title":"Book review: Tackling drug-resistant infections globally","volume":"7","author":"Shankar","year":"2016","journal-title":"Arch. Pharm. Pract."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4281","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.07593-11","article-title":"No Evidence for Transmission of Antibiotic-Resistant Escherichia coli Strains from Humans to Wild Western Lowland Gorillas in Lop\u00e9 National Park, Gabon","volume":"78","author":"Benavides","year":"2012","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-021-04265-w","article-title":"Emergence of methicillin resistance predates the clinical use of antibiotics","volume":"602","author":"Larsen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nguema, P.P.M., Onanga, R., Atome, G.R.N., Tewa, J.J., Mabika, A.M., Nzambe, J.U.M., Mbeang, J.C.O., Essono, P.Y.B., Bretagnolle, F., and Godreuil, S. (2021). High level of intrinsic phenotypic antimicrobial resistance in enterobacteria from terrestrial wildlife in Gabonese national parks. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0257994"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"890","DOI":"10.1089\/mdr.2017.0026","article-title":"First Report of the Plasmid-Mediated Colistin Resistance Genemcr-1 in Escherichia coli ST405 Isolated from Wildlife in Bejaia, Algeria","volume":"24","author":"Bachiri","year":"2018","journal-title":"Microb. Drug Resist."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plasmid.2018.09.010","article-title":"Plasmid-mediated resistance is going wild","volume":"99","author":"Dolejska","year":"2018","journal-title":"Plasmid"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-micro-091213-113052","article-title":"Altered Egos: Antibiotic Effects on Food Animal Microbiomes","volume":"68","author":"Allen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Parsons, M.B., Travis, D.A., Lonsdorf, E.V., Lipende, I., Elchoufi, D., Gilagiza, B., Collins, A., Kamenya, S., Tauxe, R.V., and Gillespie, T.R. (2021). Antimicrobial Resistance Creates Threat to Chimpanzee Health and Conservation in the Wild. Pathogens, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens10040477"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-0691.2012.03816.x","article-title":"Wild great apes as sentinels and sources of infectious disease","volume":"18","author":"Leendertz","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10376","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1521835113","article-title":"Captivity humanizes the primate microbiome","volume":"113","author":"Clayton","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22681","DOI":"10.1002\/ajp.22681","article-title":"The Critically Endangered western chimpanzee declines by 80%","volume":"79","author":"Sop","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Primatol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"623","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1523-1739.2007.00704.x","article-title":"The Contribution of Long-Term Research at Gombe National Park to Chimpanzee Conservation","volume":"21","author":"Pusey","year":"2007","journal-title":"Conserv. Biol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McLennan, M.R., and Hockings, K.J. (2014). Wild chimpanzees show group differences in selection of agricultural crops. Sci. Rep., 4.","DOI":"10.1038\/srep05956"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Albrechtova, K., Papousek, I., De Nys, H., Pauly, M., Anoh, E., Mossoun, A., Dolejska, M., Masarikova, M., Metzger, S., and Couacy-Hymann, E. (2014). Low Rates of Antimicrobial-Resistant Enterobacteriaceae in Wildlife in Ta\u00ef National Park, C\u00f4te d\u2019Ivoire, Surrounded by Villages with High Prevalence of Multiresistant ESBL-Producing Escherichia coli in People and Domestic Animals. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0113548"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1758-2229.2011.00316.x","article-title":"Highly divergent Staphylococcus aureus isolates from African non-human primates","volume":"4","author":"Schaumburg","year":"2011","journal-title":"Environ. Microbiol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.3759\/tropics.23.165","article-title":"Bacteria culturing and isolation under field conditions of Moukalaba-Doudou National Park, Gabon, and preliminary survey on bacteria carrying antibiotic resistance genes","volume":"23","author":"Nguema","year":"2015","journal-title":"Tropics"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"422","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2014.02.014","article-title":"Antimicrobial-resistant Enterobacteriaceae from humans and wildlife in Dzanga-Sangha Protected Area, Central African Republic","volume":"171","author":"Janatova","year":"2014","journal-title":"Veter- Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01632-18","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.01632-18","article-title":"Antibiotic-Resistant Escherichia coli and Class 1 Integrons in Humans, Domestic Animals, and Wild Primates in Rural Uganda","volume":"84","author":"Weiss","year":"2018","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1600","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1523-1739.2008.01018.x","article-title":"Gastrointestinal Bacterial Transmission among Humans, Mountain Gorillas, and Livestock in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda","volume":"22","author":"Rwego","year":"2008","journal-title":"Conserv. Biol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocon.2006.10.048","article-title":"Patterns of gastrointestinal bacterial exchange between chimpanzees and humans involved in research and tourism in western Uganda","volume":"135","author":"Goldberg","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biol. Conserv."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1584","DOI":"10.1038\/s41396-020-0634-2","article-title":"The microbiome and resistome of chimpanzees, gorillas, and humans across host lifestyle and geography","volume":"14","author":"Campbell","year":"2020","journal-title":"ISME J."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.7589\/JWD-D-21-00068","article-title":"Genomic characterization of multidrug-resistant extended-spectrum \u03b2-lactamase\u2013producing escherichia coli and klebsiella pneumoniae from chimpanzees (pan troglodytes) from wild and sanctuary locations in uganda","volume":"58","author":"Bager","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Wildl. Dis."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.02557-20","article-title":"Multidrug-Resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae Clones from Wild chimpanzees and termites in Senegal","volume":"65","author":"Baron","year":"2021","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1071","DOI":"10.1002\/ajp.22067","article-title":"Drug-Resistant Human Staphylococcus Aureus in Sanctuary Apes Pose a Threat to Endangered Wild Ape Populations","volume":"74","author":"Schaumburg","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. J. Primatol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.1292\/jvms.14-0604","article-title":"Isolation of multiple drug-resistant enteric bacteria from feces of wild Western Lowland Gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) in Gabon","volume":"77","author":"Nguema","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Veter-Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"318","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(17)30753-3","article-title":"Discovery, research, and development of new antibiotics: The WHO priority list of antibiotic-resistant bacteria and tuberculosis","volume":"18","author":"Tacconelli","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet Infect Dis."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S28","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiw282","article-title":"The Epidemiology of Carbapenem-Resistant Enterobacteriaceae: The Impact and Evolution of a Global Menace","volume":"215","author":"Logan","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.2165\/11533040-000000000-00000","article-title":"Infections with Extended-Spectrum \u03b2-Lactamase-Producing Enterobacteriaceae: Changing epidemiology and drug treatment choices","volume":"70","author":"Pitout","year":"2010","journal-title":"Drugs"},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"159","article-title":"Extended-spectrum \u03b2-lactamase-producing Enterobacteriaceae: An emerging public-health concern","volume":"8","author":"Pitout","year":"2008","journal-title":"Izv. Vyss. Uchebnykh Zaved. Seriya Teknol. Tekst. Promyshlennosti"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S4","DOI":"10.1016\/S0163-4453(09)60003-7","article-title":"Infections caused by Gram-positive bacteria: A review of the global challenge","volume":"59","author":"Woodford","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Infect."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2521","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2009.0320","article-title":"The role of natural environments in the evolution of resistance traits in pathogenic bacteria","volume":"276","author":"Martinez","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proc. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2819","DOI":"10.1038\/s44319-024-00156-z","article-title":"An ounce of prevention is better: Monitoring wildlife health as a tool for pandemic prevention","volume":"25","author":"Gogarten","year":"2024","journal-title":"Embo Rep."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1093\/ilar\/ilt016","article-title":"Ethical Issues in African Great Ape Field Studies","volume":"54","author":"Gruen","year":"2013","journal-title":"ILAR J."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"616","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00081-09","article-title":"Community-Associated Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus: Epidemiology and Clinical Consequences of an Emerging Epidemic","volume":"23","author":"David","year":"2010","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"629","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro2200","article-title":"Waves of resistance: Staphylococcus aureus in the antibiotic era","volume":"7","author":"Chambers","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"15","article-title":"The Bushmeat Trade: Increased Opportunities for Transmission of Zoonotic Disease","volume":"76","author":"Karesh","year":"2007","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1822","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1112.040789","article-title":"Bushmeat Hunting, Deforestation, and Prediction of Zoonotic Disease","volume":"11","author":"Wolfe","year":"2005","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocon.2005.11.031","article-title":"Getting to grips with the magnitude of exploitation: Bushmeat in the Cross\u2013Sanaga rivers region, Nigeria and Cameroon","volume":"129","author":"Fa","year":"2006","journal-title":"Biol. Conserv."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1002\/wmh3.348","article-title":"Illicit Wildlife Trade, Wet Markets, and COVID-19: Preventing Future Pandemics","volume":"12","author":"Aguirre","year":"2020","journal-title":"World Med. Health Policy"},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"35","article-title":"Faecal Antibiotic Resistome of Nigerian Chimpanzees from a Wildlife Sanctuary in Cross-River State, Nigeria","volume":"7","author":"George","year":"2021","journal-title":"Vet. Sci. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00088-17","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00088-17","article-title":"Mobile Genetic Elements Associated with Antimicrobial Resistance","volume":"31","author":"Partridge","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2016.11.012","article-title":"The role of whole genome sequencing in antimicrobial susceptibility testing of bacteria: Report from the EUCAST Subcommittee","volume":"23","author":"Ellington","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"a027037","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a027037","article-title":"Lincosamides, Streptogramins, Phenicols, and Pleuromutilins: Mode of Action and Mechanisms of Resistance","volume":"6","author":"Schwarz","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Med."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-021-00649-x","article-title":"Antibiotic resistance in the environment","volume":"20","author":"Larsson","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1574-6976.2007.00095.x","article-title":"Penicillin-binding proteins and \u03b2-lactam resistance","volume":"32","author":"Zapun","year":"2008","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tekele, S.G., Teklu, D.S., Tullu, K.D., Birru, S.K., and Legese, M.H. (2020). Extended-spectrum Beta-lactamase and AmpC beta-lactamases producing gram negative bacilli isolated from clinical specimens at International Clinical Laboratories, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0241984"},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Faure, S. (2022, April 06). Transfert d\u2019un G\u00e8ne de R\u00e9sistance aux beta-Lactamines blaCTX-M-9 entre Salmonella et les Ent\u00e9robact\u00e9ries de la Flore Intestinale Humaine: Influence d\u2019un Traitement Antibiotique, Universit\u00e9 Rennes 1, May 2009. Available online: https:\/\/tel.archives-ouvertes.fr\/tel-00449376."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"22","article-title":"SNP Scanning in MecA Gene for Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus","volume":"18","author":"Salehi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Iran. J. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drup.2010.08.003","article-title":"Aminoglycoside modifying enzymes","volume":"13","author":"Ramirez","year":"2010","journal-title":"Drug Resist. Updat."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"887","DOI":"10.1016\/j.idc.2020.06.002","article-title":"Aminoglycoside Resistance: Updates with a Focus on Acquired 16S Ribosomal RNA Methyltransferases","volume":"34","author":"Wachino","year":"2020","journal-title":"Infect. Dis. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Markley, J.L., and Wencewicz, T.A. (2018). Tetracycline-Inactivating Enzymes. Front. Microbiol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2018.01058"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1099\/jmm.0.000475","article-title":"Mechanisms of quinolone action and resistance: Where do we stand?","volume":"66","author":"Correia","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brolund, A., Sundqvist, M., Kahlmeter, G., and Grape, M. (2010). Molecular Characterisation of Trimethoprim Resistance in Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae during a Two Year Intervention on Trimethoprim Use. PLoS ONE, 5.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0009233"},{"key":"ref_57","first-page":"44","article-title":"Antibiotic Resistant Escherichia Coli in Feacal of Captive","volume":"3","author":"Mureithi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pharmacologyonline"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"n160","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.n160","article-title":"PRISMA 2020 explanation and elaboration: Updated guidance and exemplars for reporting systematic reviews","volume":"372","author":"Page","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ"}],"container-title":["Antibiotics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6382\/13\/12\/1140\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T16:40:31Z","timestamp":1760114431000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6382\/13\/12\/1140"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,27]]},"references-count":58,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12]]}},"alternative-id":["antibiotics13121140"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/antibiotics13121140","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-6382"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-6382","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,27]]}}}