{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,3]],"date-time":"2026-11-03T06:09:23Z","timestamp":1793686163376,"version":"4.5.1"},"reference-count":206,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,4]],"date-time":"2024-12-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1733270400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Antibiotics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Antibiotics, widely used medications that have significantly increased life expectancy, possess a broad range of effects beyond their primary antibacterial activity. While some are recognized as adverse events, others have demonstrated unexpected benefits. These adjunctive effects, which have been defined as \u201cpleiotropic\u201d in the case of other pharmacological classes, include immunomodulatory properties and the modulation of the microbiota. Specifically, macrolides, tetracyclines, and fluoroquinolones have been shown to modulate the immune system in both acute and chronic conditions, including autoimmune disorders (e.g., rheumatoid arthritis, spondyloarthritis) and chronic inflammatory pulmonary diseases (e.g., asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease). Azithromycin, in particular, is recommended for the long-term treatment of chronic inflammatory pulmonary diseases due to its well-established immunomodulatory effects. Furthermore, antibiotics influence the human microbiota. Rifaximin, for example, exerts a eubiotic effect that enhances the balance between the gut microbiota and the host immune cells and epithelial cells. These pleiotropic effects offer new therapeutic opportunities by interacting with human cells, signaling molecules, and bacteria involved in non-infectious diseases like spondyloarthritis and inflammatory bowel diseases. The aim of this review is to explore the pleiotropic potential of antibiotics, from molecular and cellular evidence to their clinical application, in order to optimize their use. Understanding these effects is essential to ensure careful use, particularly in consideration of the threat of antimicrobial resistance.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics13121176","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,4]],"date-time":"2024-12-04T04:47:22Z","timestamp":1733287642000},"page":"1176","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["\u201cPleiotropic\u201d Effects of Antibiotics: New Modulators in Human Diseases"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Carlo","family":"Airola","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Digestive Disease Center, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Agostino Gemelli IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"Dipartimento Universitario di Medicina e Chirurgia Traslazionale, Universit\u00e0 Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Largo Francesco Vito 1, 00168 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-2570-4914","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrea","family":"Severino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Digestive Disease Center, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Agostino Gemelli IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"Dipartimento Universitario di Medicina e Chirurgia Traslazionale, Universit\u00e0 Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Largo Francesco Vito 1, 00168 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Irene","family":"Spinelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Digestive Disease Center, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Agostino Gemelli IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"Dipartimento Universitario di Medicina e Chirurgia Traslazionale, Universit\u00e0 Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Largo Francesco Vito 1, 00168 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6230-1779","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antonio","family":"Gasbarrini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Digestive Disease Center, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Agostino Gemelli IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"Dipartimento Universitario di Medicina e Chirurgia Traslazionale, Universit\u00e0 Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Largo Francesco Vito 1, 00168 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Giovanni","family":"Cammarota","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Digestive Disease Center, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Agostino Gemelli IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"Dipartimento Universitario di Medicina e Chirurgia Traslazionale, Universit\u00e0 Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Largo Francesco Vito 1, 00168 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8318-0515","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gianluca","family":"Ianiro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Digestive Disease Center, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Agostino Gemelli IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"Dipartimento Universitario di Medicina e Chirurgia Traslazionale, Universit\u00e0 Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Largo Francesco Vito 1, 00168 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5924-6238","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francesca Romana","family":"Ponziani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Digestive Disease Center, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Agostino Gemelli IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"Dipartimento Universitario di Medicina e Chirurgia Traslazionale, Universit\u00e0 Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Largo Francesco Vito 1, 00168 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"56","article-title":"The Treasure Called Antibiotics","volume":"14","author":"Adedeji","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ann. 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