{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]],"date-time":"2026-10-02T20:55:31Z","timestamp":1790974531966,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":171,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,10]],"date-time":"2025-04-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1744243200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"ANT-Biofilm Project","award":["PNRA16_00105"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PNRA16_00105"]}]},{"name":"ANT-Biofilm Project","award":["CMPT228810"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CMPT228810"]}]},{"name":"ANT-Biofilm Project","award":["IBFM NBFC CN00000033"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IBFM NBFC CN00000033"]}]},{"name":"ANT-Biofilm Project","award":["PNRA22_0000040"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PNRA22_0000040"]}]},{"name":"Consorzio Interuniversitario per le Biotecnologie (CIB)","award":["PNRA16_00105"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PNRA16_00105"]}]},{"name":"Consorzio Interuniversitario per le Biotecnologie (CIB)","award":["CMPT228810"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CMPT228810"]}]},{"name":"Consorzio Interuniversitario per le Biotecnologie (CIB)","award":["IBFM NBFC CN00000033"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IBFM NBFC CN00000033"]}]},{"name":"Consorzio Interuniversitario per le Biotecnologie (CIB)","award":["PNRA22_0000040"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PNRA22_0000040"]}]},{"name":"Italian Ministry of Education, University and Research (MIUR)","award":["PNRA16_00105"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PNRA16_00105"]}]},{"name":"Italian Ministry of Education, University and Research (MIUR)","award":["CMPT228810"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CMPT228810"]}]},{"name":"Italian Ministry of Education, University and Research (MIUR)","award":["IBFM NBFC CN00000033"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IBFM NBFC CN00000033"]}]},{"name":"Italian Ministry of Education, University and Research (MIUR)","award":["PNRA22_0000040"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PNRA22_0000040"]}]},{"name":"National Biodiversity Future Center","award":["PNRA16_00105"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PNRA16_00105"]}]},{"name":"National Biodiversity Future Center","award":["CMPT228810"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CMPT228810"]}]},{"name":"National Biodiversity Future Center","award":["IBFM NBFC CN00000033"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IBFM NBFC CN00000033"]}]},{"name":"National Biodiversity Future Center","award":["PNRA22_0000040"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PNRA22_0000040"]}]},{"name":"STORAGE project","award":["PNRA16_00105"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PNRA16_00105"]}]},{"name":"STORAGE project","award":["CMPT228810"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CMPT228810"]}]},{"name":"STORAGE project","award":["IBFM NBFC CN00000033"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IBFM NBFC CN00000033"]}]},{"name":"STORAGE project","award":["PNRA22_0000040"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PNRA22_0000040"]}]},{"name":"Universit\u00e0 degli Studi dell\u2019Insubria","award":["PNRA16_00105"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PNRA16_00105"]}]},{"name":"Universit\u00e0 degli Studi dell\u2019Insubria","award":["CMPT228810"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CMPT228810"]}]},{"name":"Universit\u00e0 degli Studi dell\u2019Insubria","award":["IBFM NBFC CN00000033"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IBFM NBFC CN00000033"]}]},{"name":"Universit\u00e0 degli Studi dell\u2019Insubria","award":["PNRA22_0000040"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PNRA22_0000040"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Antibiotics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The global spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) threatens to plummet society back to the pre-antibiotic era through a resurgence of common everyday infections\u2019 morbidity. Thus, studies investigating antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) and antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB) in urban, agricultural, and clinical settings, as well as in extreme environments, have become increasingly relevant in the One Health perspective. Since the Antarctic and Arctic regions are considered amongst the few remaining pristine environments on Earth, the characterization of their native resistome appears to be of the utmost importance to understand whether and how it is evolving as a result of anthropogenic activities and climate change. In the present review, we report on the phenotypic (e.g., disk diffusion test) and genotypic (e.g., PCR, metagenomics) approaches used to study AMR in the aquatic environment of polar regions, as water represents one of AMR main dissemination routes in nature. Their advantages and limits are described, and the emerging trends resulting from the analysis of ARB and ARGs diffusion in polar waters discussed. The resistome detected in these extreme environments appears to be mostly comparable to those from more anthropized areas, with the predominance of tetracycline, \u03b2-lactam, and sulfonamide resistance (and related ARGs). Indeed, AMR is, in all cases, more consistently highlighted in sites impacted by human and wildlife activities with respect to more pristine ones. Surprisingly, aminoglycoside and fluroquinolone determinants seem to have an even higher incidence in the Antarctic and Arctic aquatic environment compared to that from other areas of the world, corroborating the need for a more thorough AMR surveillance in these regions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics14040394","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,10]],"date-time":"2025-04-10T07:41:51Z","timestamp":1744270911000},"page":"394","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Emerging Trends in Antimicrobial Resistance in Polar Aquatic Ecosystems"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-5992-6139","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Melissa","family":"Bisaccia","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biotechnology and Life Sciences (DBSV), University of Insubria, 21100 Varese, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1913-9929","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francesca","family":"Berini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biotechnology and Life Sciences (DBSV), University of Insubria, 21100 Varese, Italy"},{"name":"Climate Change Research Center (CCRC), University of Insubria, 22100 Como, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9195-6777","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Flavia","family":"Marinelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biotechnology and Life Sciences (DBSV), University of Insubria, 21100 Varese, Italy"},{"name":"Climate Change Research Center (CCRC), University of Insubria, 22100 Como, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9305-4451","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elisa","family":"Binda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biotechnology and Life Sciences (DBSV), University of Insubria, 21100 Varese, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"GBD 2021 Antimicrobial Resistance Collaborators (2024). Global burden of bacterial antimicrobial resistance 1990\u20132021: A systematic analysis with forecasts to 2050. Lancet, 404, 1199\u20131226."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"European Antimicrobial Resistance Collaborators (2022). The burden of bacterial antimicrobial resistance in the WHO European region in 2019: A cross-country systematic analysis. Lancet Public Health, 7, e897\u2013e913."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"O\u2019Neill, J. (2016). Tackling Drug-Resistant Infections Globally: Final Report and Recommendations, The Review on Antimicrobial Resistance."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vassallo, A., Kett, S., Purchase, D., and Marvasi, M. (2022). The bacterial urban resistome: Recent advances. Antibiotics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics11040512"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156544","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.156544","article-title":"Antibiotic resistant bacteria and genes in wastewater treatment plants: From occurrence to treatment strategies","volume":"838","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1683","DOI":"10.4014\/jmb.1909.09030","article-title":"Mitigating antibiotic resistance at the livestock-environment interface: A review","volume":"29","author":"Ma","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11054","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-021-17825-4","article-title":"Antibiotics, antibiotic-resistant bacteria, and resistance genes in aquaculture: Risks, current concern, and future thinking","volume":"29","author":"Hossain","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-8579(01)00378-8","article-title":"Antibiotic resistance in hospital pathogens\u2014Acquisition or spread?","volume":"18","author":"Williams","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"32112","article-title":"Anthropogenic antibiotic resistance genes mobilization to the polar regions","volume":"6","year":"2016","journal-title":"Infect. Ecol. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Scott, L.C., Lee, N., and Aw, T.G. (2020). Antibiotic resistance in minimally human-impacted environments. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17113939"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Perron, G.G., Whyte, L., Turnbaugh, P.J., Goordial, J., Hanage, W.P., Dantas, G., and Desai, M.M. (2015). Functional characterization of bacteria isolated from ancient arctic soil exposes diverse resistance mechanisms to modern antibiotics. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0069533"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Van Goethem, M.W., Pierneef, R., Bezuidt, O., Van De Peer, Y., Cowan, D.A., and Makhalanyane, T.P. (2018). A reservoir of \u2018historical\u2019 antibiotic resistance genes in remote pristine Antarctic soils. Microbiome, 6.","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-018-0424-5"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jgar.2018.11.005","article-title":"Detection of the sul2-strA-strB gene cluster in an ice core from Dome Fuji Station, East Antarctica","volume":"17","author":"Okubo","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Glob. Antimicrob. Resist."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129860","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2021.129860","article-title":"First screening of biocides, persistent organic pollutants, pharmaceutical and personal care products in Antarctic phytoplankton from Deception Island by FT-ICR-MS","volume":"274","author":"Duarte","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2019.06.350","article-title":"Diversity of metals and metal-interactive bacterial populations in different types of Arctic snow and frost flowers: Implications on snow freeze-melt processes in a changing climate","volume":"690","author":"Mortazavi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140417","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.140417","article-title":"Prioritisation of emerging contaminants in the northern Antarctic Peninsula based on their environmental risk","volume":"742","author":"Olalla","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149054","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2021.149054","article-title":"Sources and composition of chemical pollution in Maritime Antarctica (King George Island), part 2: Organic and inorganic chemicals in snow cover at the Warszawa Icefield","volume":"796","author":"Potapowicz","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2019.01.093","article-title":"Persistent organic pollutants in the polar regions and the Tibetan Plateau: A review of current knowledge and future prospects","volume":"248","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bisaccia, M., Binda, E., Caruso, G., Azzaro, M., Dell\u2019Acqua, O., Di Cesare, A., Eckert, E.M., and Marinelli, F. (2025). Bacterial diversity of marine biofilm communities in Terra Nova Bay (Antarctica) by culture-dependent and -independent approaches. Environ. Microbiol., 27.","DOI":"10.1111\/1462-2920.70045"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12621","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.6b02863","article-title":"Influence of soil characteristics and proximity to Antarctic research stations on abundance of antibiotic resistance genes in soils","volume":"50","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"602","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2016.09.026","article-title":"The environmental impact of sewage and wastewater outfalls in Antarctica: An example from Davis station, East Antarctica","volume":"105","author":"Stark","year":"2016","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Uluseker, C., Kaster, K.M., Thorsen, K., Basiry, D., Shobana, S., Jain, M., Kumar, G., Kommedal, R., and Pala-Ozkok, I. (2021). A review on occurrence and spread of antibiotic resistance in wastewaters and in wastewater treatment plants: Mechanisms and perspectives. Front. Microbiol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2021.717809"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Waglechner, N., and Wright, G.D. (2017). Antibiotic resistance: It\u2019s bad, but why isn\u2019t it worse?. BMC Biol., 15.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12915-017-0423-1"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro2312","article-title":"Call of the wild: Antibiotic resistance genes in natural environments","volume":"8","author":"Allen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10975","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.8b02204","article-title":"Global survey of antibiotic resistance genes in air","volume":"52","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113067","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2019.113067","article-title":"Freshwater environments as reservoirs of antibiotic resistant bacteria and their role in the dissemination of antibiotic resistance genes","volume":"254","author":"Nnadozie","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168310","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2023.168310","article-title":"Metagenomic analysis of antibiotic-resistance genes and viruses released from glaciers into downstream habitats","volume":"908","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2418","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scib.2023.09.007","article-title":"Diversity and function of mountain and polar supraglacial DNA viruses","volume":"68","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Bull."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Haan, T.J., and Drown, D.M. (2021). Unearthing antibiotic resistance associated with disturbance-induced permafrost haw in interior Alaska. Microorganisms, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms9010116"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118634","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2021.118634","article-title":"Characterization of antimicrobial resistance genes and virulence factor genes in an Arctic permafrost region revealed by metagenomics","volume":"294","author":"Kim","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"2049936121991374","article-title":"Climate change and antibiotic resistance: A deadly combination","volume":"8","author":"Burnham","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ther. Adv. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.ampbs.2016.07.002","article-title":"Polar marine microorganisms and climate change","volume":"69","author":"Verde","year":"2016","journal-title":"Adv. Microb. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111829","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpolbul.2020.111829","article-title":"Occurrence and antibacterial resistance of culturable antibiotic-resistant bacteria in the Fildes Peninsula, Antarctica","volume":"162","author":"Na","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mar. Pollut. Bull."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2019.03.099","article-title":"Metagenomic characterization of antibiotic resistance genes in Antarctic soils","volume":"176","author":"Yuan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"761","DOI":"10.1111\/1574-6976.12062","article-title":"Bacterial diversity and antibiotic resistance in water habitats: Searching the links with the human microbiome","volume":"38","author":"Nunes","year":"2014","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"736","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2016.06.025","article-title":"Antibiotics in the aquatic environments: A review of the European scenario","volume":"94","author":"Carvalho","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"687","DOI":"10.1002\/etc.5289","article-title":"Antimicrobial resistance in rivers: A review of the genes detected and new challenges","volume":"41","author":"Grenni","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Toxicol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116455","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2020.116455","article-title":"Antibiotics and antibiotic resistant genes (ARGs) in groundwater: A global review on dissemination, sources, interactions, environmental and human health risks","volume":"187","author":"Zainab","year":"2020","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162554","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2023.162554","article-title":"Unexpected enrichment of antibiotic resistance genes and organic remediation genes in high-altitude lakes at Eastern Tibetan Plateau","volume":"874","author":"Lu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, W., Li, Y., Chu, Y., Liu, H., Jing, H., and Xia, Q. (2024). Deep-Sea ecosystems as an unexpected source of antibiotic resistance genes. Mar. Drugs, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/md23010017"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148262","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2021.148262","article-title":"Metagenomics analysis revealing the occurrence of antibiotic resistome in salt lakes","volume":"790","author":"Liang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"676","DOI":"10.1007\/s00248-021-01889-3","article-title":"Cave microbes as a potential source of drugs development in the modern era","volume":"84","author":"Zada","year":"2022","journal-title":"Microb. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"484","DOI":"10.1007\/s00248-008-9431-6","article-title":"Antibiotic resistance in bacteria isolated from the deep terrestrial subsurface","volume":"57","author":"Brown","year":"2009","journal-title":"Microb. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"432","DOI":"10.2134\/jeq2015.06.0317","article-title":"Culture-based methods for detection of antibiotic resistance in agroecosystems: Advantages, challenges, and gaps in knowledge","volume":"45","author":"McLain","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Environ. Qual."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1007\/s40572-023-00393-9","article-title":"A systematic review of culture-based methods for monitoring antibiotic-resistant Acinetobacter, Aeromonas, and Pseudomonas as environmentally relevant pathogens in wastewater and surface water","volume":"10","author":"Milligan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Curr. Environ. Health Rep."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Anjum, M.F., Zankari, E., and Hasman, H. (2017). Molecular methods for detection of antimicrobial resistance. Microbiol. Spectr., 5.","DOI":"10.1128\/microbiolspec.ARBA-0011-2017"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pillay, S., Calder\u00f3n-Franco, D., Urhan, A., and Abeel, T. (2022). Metagenomic-based surveillance systems for antibiotic resistance in non-clinical settings. Front. Microbiol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2022.1066995"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, B., Xin, X., Cao, X., Nasifu, L., Nie, Z., and He, B. (2024). Phenotypic and genotypic perspectives on detection methods for bacterial antimicrobial resistance in a One Health context: Research progress and prospects. Arch. Microbiol., 206.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00203-024-04131-z"},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"356","article-title":"Sequencing-based methods and resources to study antimicrobial resistance","volume":"20","author":"Boolchandani","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Genet."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"xtad008","DOI":"10.1093\/femsmc\/xtad008","article-title":"Quantitative PCR versus metagenomics for monitoring antibiotic resistance genes: Balancing high sensitivity and broad coverage","volume":"4","author":"Ferreira","year":"2023","journal-title":"FEMS Microbes"},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Gaze, W., Leonard, A., Stanton, I., Anjum, F., Antonio, M., Balkhy, H., B\u00f6rjesson, S., Curnow, D., Essack, S., and Foster, G. (2025, February 28). Towards Developing an International Environmental AMR Surveillance Strategy. Technical Report. Available online: https:\/\/www.jpiamr.eu\/projects\/towards-developing-an-international-environmental-amr-surveillance-strategy\/."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Akulava, V., Miamin, U., Akhremchuk, K., Valentovich, L., Dolgikh, A., and Shapaval, V. (2022). Isolation, physiological characterization, and antibiotic susceptibility testing of fast-growing bacteria from the sea-affected temporary meltwater ponds in the Thala Hills Oasis (Enderby Land, East Antarctica). Biology, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/biology11081143"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Blanco-Picazo, P., Roscales, G., Toribio-Avedillo, D., G\u00f3mez-G\u00f3mez, C., Avila, C., Ballest\u00e9, E., Muniesa, M., and Rodr\u00edguez-Rubio, L. (2020). Antibiotic resistance genes in phage particles from Antarctic and Mediterranean seawater ecosystems. Microorganisms, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms8091293"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Caruso, G., Azzaro, M., Dell\u2019Acqua, O., Papale, M., Lo Giudice, A., and Lagan\u00e0, P. (2024). Plastic polymers and antibiotic resistance in an Antarctic environment (Ross Sea): Are we revealing the tip of an iceberg?. Microorganisms, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms12102083"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"giaa046","DOI":"10.1093\/gigascience\/giaa046","article-title":"Global ocean resistome revealed: Exploring antibiotic resistance gene abundance and distribution in TARA Oceans samples","volume":"9","author":"Cuadrat","year":"2020","journal-title":"GigaScience"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Durso, L.M., Miller, D.N., and Wienhold, B.J. (2012). Distribution and quantification of antibiotic resistant genes and bacteria across agricultural and non-agricultural metagenomes. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0048325"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Giovannini, M., Vieri, W., Bosi, E., Riccardi, C., Lo Giudice, A., Fani, R., Fondi, M., and Perrin, E. (2024). Functional genomics of a collection of Gammaproteobacteria isolated from Antarctica. Mar. Drugs, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/md22060238"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2056","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.07320-11","article-title":"Human-associated extended-spectrum \u03b2-lactamase in the Antarctic","volume":"78","author":"Stedt","year":"2012","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2018.07.027","article-title":"Occurrence of antibiotics and bacterial resistance in wastewater and sea water from the Antarctic","volume":"363","author":"Ferrer","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153360","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.153360","article-title":"Abundance and diversity of antibiotic resistance genes and bacterial communities in the western Pacific and Southern Oceans","volume":"822","author":"Jang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jara, D., Bello-Toledo, H., Dom\u00ednguez, M., Cigarroa, C., Fern\u00e1ndez, P., Vergara, L., Quezada-Aguiluz, M., Opazo-Capurro, A., Lima, C.A., and Gonz\u00e1lez-Rocha, G. (2020). Antibiotic resistance in bacterial isolates from freshwater samples in Fildes Peninsula, King George Island, Antarctica. Sci. Rep., 10.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-60035-0"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2018.08.009","article-title":"Do plastics serve as a possible vector for the spread of antibiotic resistance? First insights from bacteria associated to a polystyrene piece from King George Island (Antarctica)","volume":"222","author":"Caruso","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137511","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2022.137511","article-title":"Whole genome analysis of Flavobacterium aziz-sancarii sp. nov., isolated from Ardley Island (Antarctica), revealed a rich resistome and bioremediation potential","volume":"313","author":"Otur","year":"2023","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Otur, \u00c7., Okay, S., Konuksever, \u00d6., Duyar, O., Kaya, Y., and Kurt-K\u0131z\u0131ldo\u011fan, A. (2024). Comprehensive characterization and resistome analysis of Antarctic Pseudomonas migulae strain CAS19. World J. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 40.","DOI":"10.1007\/s11274-024-04153-1"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2016.04.013","article-title":"Escherichia coli out in the cold: Dissemination of human-derived bacteria into the Antarctic microbiome","volume":"215","author":"Power","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00410-16","DOI":"10.1128\/genomeA.00410-16","article-title":"Draft genome sequence of Flavobacterium sp. strain TAB 87, able to inhibit the growth of cystic fibrosis bacterial pathogens belonging to the Burkholderia cepacia complex","volume":"4","author":"Presta","year":"2016","journal-title":"Genome Announc."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/j.polar.2016.04.002","article-title":"Antibiotic resistance in Escherichia coli strains isolated from Antarctic bird feces, water from inside a wastewater treatment plant, and seawater samples collected in the Antarctic Treaty area","volume":"10","author":"Rabbia","year":"2016","journal-title":"Polar Sci."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170148","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2024.170148","article-title":"Unraveling the mystery of antibiotic resistance genes in green and red Antarctic snow","volume":"915","author":"Ren","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155400","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.155400","article-title":"Pharmaceuticals and other contaminants of emerging concern in Admiralty Bay as a result of untreated wastewater discharge: Status and possible environmental consequences","volume":"835","author":"Potapowicz","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.2323\/jgam.56.43","article-title":"Application of real-time PCR array to the multiple detection of antibiotic resistant genes in glacier ice samples","volume":"56","author":"Ushida","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Gen. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2019.03.062","article-title":"Metagenomic insights into the abundance and composition of resistance genes in aquatic environments: Influence of stratification and geography","volume":"127","author":"Yang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119738","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2022.119738","article-title":"Metagenomic insights into the antibiotic resistome in freshwater and seawater from an Antarctic ice-free area","volume":"309","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176765","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2024.176765","article-title":"Global quantification and distribution of antibiotic resistance genes in oceans and seas: Anthropogenic impacts and regional variability","volume":"955","author":"Brandtner","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"542","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2016.07.036","article-title":"The release of wastewater contaminants in the Arctic: A case study from Cambridge Bay, Nunavut, Canada","volume":"218","author":"Luong","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148640","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2021.148640","article-title":"Microbial colonizers of microplastics in an Arctic freshwater lake","volume":"795","author":"Casero","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e02914-20","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.02914-20","article-title":"Monitoring microbial populations and antibiotic resistance gene enrichment associated with Arctic waste stabilization ponds","volume":"87","author":"Gromala","year":"2021","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1415","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2018.06.083","article-title":"Fate of antibiotic resistance genes in two Arctic tundra wetlands impacted by municipal wastewater","volume":"642","author":"Hayward","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142998","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.142998","article-title":"The microbial community, its biochemical potential, and the antimicrobial resistance of Enterococcus spp. in Arctic lakes under natural and anthropogenic impact (West Spitsbergen)","volume":"763","author":"Kalinowska","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1089","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-017-0485-1","article-title":"Bacterial isolates from the Arctic region (Pasvik River, Norway): Assessment of biofilm production and antibiotic susceptibility profiles","volume":"25","author":"Votano","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Makowska-Zawierucha, N., Trzebny, A., Zawierucha, K., Manthapuri, V., Bradley, J.A., and Pruden, A. (2024). Arctic plasmidome analysis reveals distinct relationships among associated antimicrobial resistance genes and virulence genes along anthropogenic gradients. Glob. Change Biol., 30.","DOI":"10.1111\/gcb.17293"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"382","DOI":"10.1016\/j.polar.2015.10.002","article-title":"Relatively high antibiotic resistance among heterotrophic bacteria from arctic fjord sediments than water\u2014Evidence towards better selection pressure in the fjord sediments","volume":"9","author":"Neethu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Polar Sci."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1139\/cjm-2014-0803","article-title":"Heavy-metal resistance in Gram-negative bacteria isolated from Kongsfjord, Arctic","volume":"61","author":"Neethu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Can. J. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1085","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2017.04.151","article-title":"Antibiotic resistance genes in municipal wastewater treatment systems and receiving waters in Arctic Canada","volume":"598","author":"Neudorf","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151937","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2021.151937","article-title":"Metagenomic analysis reveals microbiome and resistome in the seawater and sediments of Kongsfjorden (Svalbard, High Arctic)","volume":"809","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cao, S., Zhang, W., Ding, W., Wang, M., Fan, S., Yang, B., Mcminn, A., Wang, M., Xie, B.B., and Qin, Q.L. (2020). Structure and function of the Arctic and Antarctic marine microbiota as revealed by metagenomics. Microbiome, 8.","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-020-00826-9"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1111\/1758-2229.12011","article-title":"Distribution of antibiotic resistance genes in glacier environments","volume":"5","author":"Segawa","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Microbiol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_87","unstructured":"(2025, February 28). Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition Home Page. Available online: https:\/\/www.asoc.org\/learn\/antarctic-governance\/?utm_source=chatgpt.com#antarctic-treaty-system."},{"key":"ref_88","unstructured":"(2025, February 28). INTERACT Home Page. Available online: https:\/\/eu-interact.org\/accessing-the-arctic\/arctic-fieldwork-permits-and-regulations\/?utm_source=chatgpt.com."},{"key":"ref_89","unstructured":"(2025, February 28). PAME Home Page. Available online: https:\/\/www.unep.org\/protection-arctic-marine-environment-pame."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134023","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2019.134023","article-title":"Antibiotic resistance genes identified in wastewater treatment plant systems\u2014A review","volume":"697","author":"Pazda","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tim.2017.09.005","article-title":"Antibiotic-resistance genes in wastewater","volume":"26","author":"Karkman","year":"2018","journal-title":"Trends Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_92","unstructured":"United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) (2022). Method 1604: Total Coliforms and Escherichia coli in Water by Membrane Filtration Using a Simultaneous Detection Technique (MI Medium), USEPA Office of Water."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcp\/45.4_ts.493","article-title":"Antibiotic susceptibility testing by a standardized single disk method","volume":"45","author":"Bauer","year":"1966","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_94","unstructured":"CLSI (2022). Performance Standards for Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing, Clinical and Laboratory Standard Institute. [32nd ed.]. CLSI Supplement M100."},{"key":"ref_95","unstructured":"EUCAST (2025, February 28). The European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing. Breakpoint Tables for Interpretation of MICs and Zone Diameters. Version 12.0. Available online: http:\/\/www.eucast.org."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-020-00458-8","article-title":"Innovations to culturing the uncultured microbial majority","volume":"19","author":"Lewis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hurst, C. (2019). Isolation and cultivation of bacteria. The Structure and Function of Aquatic Microbial Communities, Springer. Advances in Environmental Microbiology.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-16775-2_1"},{"key":"ref_98","first-page":"5","article-title":"Next-generation sequencing for surveillance of antimicrobial resistance and pathogenicity in municipal wastewater treatment plants","volume":"30","author":"Noyola","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peterson, E., and Kaur, P. (2018). Antibiotic resistance mechanisms in bacteria: Relationships between resistance determinants of antibiotic producers, environmental bacteria, and clinical pathogens. Front. Microbiol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2018.02928"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro3380","article-title":"Molecular mechanisms of antibiotic resistance","volume":"13","author":"Blair","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4055","DOI":"10.1039\/c0cc05111j","article-title":"Molecular mechanisms of antibiotic resistance","volume":"47","author":"Wright","year":"2011","journal-title":"Chem. Commun."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1269","DOI":"10.1038\/ismej.2014.226","article-title":"Using the class 1 integron-integrase gene as a proxy for anthropogenic pollution","volume":"9","author":"Gillings","year":"2015","journal-title":"ISME J."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5095","DOI":"10.1128\/JB.00152-08","article-title":"The evolution of class 1 integrons and the rise of antibiotic resistance","volume":"190","author":"Gillings","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1128\/MMBR.00056-13","article-title":"Integrons: Past, present, and future","volume":"78","author":"Gillings","year":"2014","journal-title":"Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mib.2017.03.002","article-title":"Class 1 integrons as invasive species","volume":"38","author":"Gillings","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15360","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-015-5085-3","article-title":"Integron diversity in marine environments","volume":"22","author":"Abella","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1038\/ismej.2008.8","article-title":"Influence of industrial contamination on mobile genetic elements: Class 1 integron abundance and gene cassette structure in aquatic bacterial communities","volume":"2","author":"Wright","year":"2008","journal-title":"ISME J."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101488","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mex.2021.101488","article-title":"Optimization of five qPCR protocols toward the detection and the quantification of antimicrobial resistance genes in environmental samples","volume":"8","author":"Tolosi","year":"2021","journal-title":"MethodsX"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1621","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.00211-17","article-title":"Applications of digital PCR for clinical microbiology","volume":"55","author":"Kuypers","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jgar.2022.08.017","article-title":"Comparative analysis of two next-generation sequencing platforms for analysis of antimicrobial resistance genes","volume":"31","author":"Soni","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Glob. Antimicrob. Resist."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"a025387","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a025387","article-title":"Tetracycline antibiotics and resistance","volume":"6","author":"Grossman","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Med."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1515\/hsz-2013-0292","article-title":"Tetracycline antibiotics and resistance mechanisms","volume":"395","author":"Nguyen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ogawara, H. (2019). Comparison of antibiotic resistance mechanisms in antibiotic-producing and pathogenic bacteria. Molecules, 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules24193430"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117402","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2021.117402","article-title":"Distribution of antibiotic resistance genes in the environment","volume":"285","author":"Zhuang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2017.08.078","article-title":"Complex migration of antibiotic resistance in natural aquatic environments","volume":"232","author":"Gao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2018.04.011","article-title":"Antibiotics and antibiotic resistance genes in global lakes: A review and meta-analysis","volume":"116","author":"Yang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146009","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2021.146009","article-title":"A systematic review of antibiotics and antibiotic resistance genes in estuarine and coastal environments","volume":"777","author":"Zheng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"a025247","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a025247","article-title":"\u03b2-lactams and \u03b2-lactamase inhibitors: An overview","volume":"6","author":"Bush","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Med."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1451","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addr.2005.04.002","article-title":"Bacterial resistance to antibiotics: Enzymatic degradation and modification","volume":"57","author":"Wright","year":"2005","journal-title":"Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116624","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2021.116624","article-title":"\u03b2-Lactam antibiotics and antibiotic resistance in Asian lakes and rivers: An overview of contamination, sources and detection methods","volume":"275","author":"Madriaga","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"510","DOI":"10.1007\/s00284-008-9103-2","article-title":"Occurrence of resistance to antibiotics, UV-B, and arsenic in bacteria isolated from extreme environments in high-altitude (above 4400 m) Andean wetlands","volume":"56","author":"Dib","year":"2008","journal-title":"Curr. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"696","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2019.03.059","article-title":"Antibiotic resistance and heavy metal tolerance in cultured bacteria from hot springs as indicators of environmental intrinsic resistance and tolerance levels","volume":"249","author":"Jardine","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1007\/s10482-005-9032-z","article-title":"Identification of environmental plasmid-bearing Vibrio species isolated from polluted and pristine marine reserves of Hong Kong, and resistance to antibiotics and mercury","volume":"89","author":"Zhang","year":"2006","journal-title":"Antonie Leeuwenhoek"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bhullar, K., Waglechner, N., Pawlowski, A., Koteva, K., Banks, E.D., Johnston, M.D., Barton, H.A., and Wright, G.D. (2012). Antibiotic resistance is prevalent in an isolated cave microbiome. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0034953"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hwengwere, K., Paramel Nair, H., Hughes, K.A., Peck, L.S., Clark, M.S., and Walker, C.A. (2022). Antimicrobial resistance in Antarctica: Is it still a pristine environment?. Microbiome, 10.","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-022-01250-x"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115880","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2020.115880","article-title":"The role of the natural aquatic environment in the dissemination of extended spectrum beta-lactamase and carbapenemase encoding genes: A scoping review","volume":"180","author":"Hooban","year":"2020","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2052","DOI":"10.2174\/1389557520666200905125738","article-title":"From antibacterial to antitumour agents: A brief review on the chemical and medicinal aspects of sulfonamides","volume":"20","author":"Dias","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mini Rev. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1051\/vetres:2001123","article-title":"Resistance to trimethoprim and sulfonamides","volume":"32","year":"2001","journal-title":"Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1176","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2017.10.110","article-title":"Arctic antibiotic resistance gene contamination, a result of anthropogenic activities and natural origin","volume":"621","author":"Tan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2015.04.005","article-title":"Does human activity impact the natural antibiotic resistance background? Abundance of antibiotic resistance genes in 21 Swiss lakes","volume":"81","author":"Czekalski","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"765","DOI":"10.1111\/cbdd.14025","article-title":"Emerging quinoline- and quinolone-based antibiotics in the light of epidemics","volume":"100","author":"Kaur","year":"2022","journal-title":"Chem. Biol. Drug Des."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1111\/nyas.12830","article-title":"Mechanisms of drug resistance: Quinolone resistance","volume":"1354","author":"Hooper","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"280","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-022-00820-y","article-title":"Molecular mechanisms of antibiotic resistance revisited","volume":"21","author":"Darby","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140804","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.140804","article-title":"Comparison of antibiotic-resistant bacteria and antibiotic resistance genes abundance in hospital and community wastewater: A systematic review","volume":"743","author":"Stabholz","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1021\/cb3005116","article-title":"Aminoglycoside antibiotics in the 21st century","volume":"8","author":"Becker","year":"2013","journal-title":"ACS Chem. Biol."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"768","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molmed.2020.05.001","article-title":"Antibiotic resistance by enzymatic modification of antibiotic targets","volume":"26","author":"Schaenzer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Trends Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"668","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tibs.2018.06.011","article-title":"How macrolide antibiotics work","volume":"43","author":"Mankin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Trends Biochem. Sci."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Miklasi\u0144ska-Majdanik, M. (2021). Mechanisms of resistance to macrolide antibiotics among Staphylococcus aureus. Antibiotics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics10111406"},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lorenzo, D. (2019). Chloramphenicol resurrected: A journey from antibiotic resistance in eye infections to biofilm and ocular microbiota. Microorganisms, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms7090278"},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"519","DOI":"10.1016\/j.femsre.2004.04.001","article-title":"Molecular basis of bacterial resistance to chloramphenicol and florfenicol","volume":"28","author":"Schwarz","year":"2004","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pepi, M., and Focardi, S. (2021). Antibiotic-resistant bacteria in aquaculture and climate change: A challenge for health in the Mediterranean area. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18115723"},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"572","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics3040572","article-title":"Old and new glycopeptide antibiotics: Action and resistance","volume":"3","author":"Binda","year":"2014","journal-title":"Antibiotics"},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yushchuk, O., Binda, E., and Marinelli, F. (2020). Glycopeptide antibiotic resistance genes: Distribution and function in the producer actinomycetes. Front. Microbiol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2020.01173"},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1038\/nature10388","article-title":"Antibiotic resistance is ancient","volume":"477","author":"King","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"922","DOI":"10.1038\/nbt.2685","article-title":"Identifying producers of antibacterial compounds by screening for antibiotic resistance","volume":"31","author":"Thaker","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"374","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1120800","article-title":"Sampling the antibiotic resistome","volume":"311","author":"McGrann","year":"2006","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"786","DOI":"10.1038\/s41429-021-00462-x","article-title":"Rifamycin antibiotics and the mechanisms of their failure","volume":"74","author":"Adams","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Antibiot."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2065","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.accounts.1c00048","article-title":"The enzymes of the rifamycin antibiotic resistome","volume":"54","author":"Surette","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acc. Chem. Res."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e191","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(21)00808-2","article-title":"25 years of surveillance of drug-resistant tuberculosis: Achievements, challenges, and way forward","volume":"22","author":"Dean","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jgar.2022.08.021","article-title":"Global prevalence of resistance to rifampicin in Mycobacterium leprae: A meta-analysis","volume":"31","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Glob. Antimicrob. Resist."},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00068-15","article-title":"Fosfomycin","volume":"29","author":"Falagas","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105092","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejps.2019.105092","article-title":"An update on derivatisation and repurposing of clinical nitrofuran drugs","volume":"140","author":"Zuma","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Foti, C., Piperno, A., Scala, A., and Giuffr\u00e8, O. (2021). Oxazolidinone antibiotics: Chemical, biological and analytical aspects. Molecules, 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules26144280"},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-16373-0_5","article-title":"Mechanisms of polymyxin resistance","volume":"1145","author":"Moffatt","year":"2019","journal-title":"Adv. Exp. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1165","DOI":"10.2217\/fmb.14.66","article-title":"Multidrug efflux pumps in Gram-negative bacteria and their role in antibiotic resistance","volume":"9","author":"Blair","year":"2014","journal-title":"Future Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1979","DOI":"10.2147\/IDR.S369023","article-title":"The phenomenon of antibiotic resistance in the polar regions: An overview of the global problem","volume":"16","author":"Depta","year":"2023","journal-title":"Infect. Drug Resist."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Delgado-Baquerizo, M., Hu, H.W., Maestre, F.T., Guerra, C.A., Eisenhauer, N., Eldridge, D.J., Zhu, Y.G., Chen, Q.L., Trivedi, P., and Du, S. (2022). The global distribution and environmental drivers of the soil antibiotic resistome. Microbiome, 10.","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-022-01405-w"},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1553","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-022-29283-8","article-title":"Assessment of global health risk of antibiotic resistance genes","volume":"13","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114569","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2022.114569","article-title":"Molecular dissemination of emerging antibiotic, biocide, and metal co-resistomes in the Himalayan hot springs","volume":"307","author":"Sharma","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elbehery, A.H.A., Beason, E., and Siam, R. (2023). Metagenomic profiling of antibiotic resistance genes in Red Sea brine pools. Arch. Microbiol., 205.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00203-023-03531-x"},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1751-8369.2008.00056.x","article-title":"Survey of wastewater disposal practices at Antarctic research stations","volume":"28","author":"Sidenmark","year":"2009","journal-title":"Polar Res."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoleng.2012.04.025","article-title":"A review of wastewater handling in the Arctic with special reference to pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) and microbial pollution","volume":"50","author":"Jenssen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ecol. Eng."},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vialkova, E., and Glushchenko, E. (2021). Wastewater treatment in remote Arctic settlements. Water, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/w13070919"},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120761","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2023.120761","article-title":"Candidate biomarkers of antibiotic resistance for the monitoring of wastewater and the downstream environment","volume":"247","author":"Teixeira","year":"2023","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1731","DOI":"10.1080\/10643389.2023.2181620","article-title":"Recommendations for the use of metagenomics for routine monitoring of antibiotic resistance in wastewater and impacted aquatic environments","volume":"53","author":"Davis","year":"2023","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_166","unstructured":"(2025, February 28). SCAR Home Page. Available online: https:\/\/scar.org\/policy\/sc-ats\/field-codes-of-conduct."},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9149","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.1c08918","article-title":"Antimicrobial resistance monitoring of water environments: A framework for standardized methods and quality control","volume":"56","author":"Liguori","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_168","unstructured":"(2025, February 28). WHO GLASS Home Page. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/initiatives\/glass."},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yamin, D., Uskokovi\u0107, V., Wakil, A.M., Goni, M.D., Shamsuddin, S.H., Mustafa, F.H., Alfouzan, W.A., Alissa, M., Alshengeti, A., and Almaghrabi, R.H. (2023). Current and future technologies for the detection of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Diagnostics, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics13203246"},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1080\/14737159.2019.1592678","article-title":"How to discover new antibiotic resistance genes?","volume":"19","author":"Hadjadj","year":"2019","journal-title":"Expert. Rev. Mol. Diagn."},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csbj.2025.01.006","article-title":"The role of artificial intelligence and machine learning in predicting and combating antimicrobial resistance","volume":"27","author":"Bilal","year":"2025","journal-title":"Comput. Struct. Biotechnol. J."}],"container-title":["Antibiotics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6382\/14\/4\/394\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T17:12:14Z","timestamp":1760029934000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6382\/14\/4\/394"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,10]]},"references-count":171,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4]]}},"alternative-id":["antibiotics14040394"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/antibiotics14040394","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-6382"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-6382","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,10]]}}}