{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,19]],"date-time":"2026-10-19T23:54:26Z","timestamp":1792454066219,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":104,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,8]],"date-time":"2025-08-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1754611200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Antibiotics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: Vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE) are significant nosocomial pathogens worldwide, potentially transmitted by food-producing animals and related products. This study investigates the epidemiological role of bovine raw milk in the transmission of VRE to humans. Methods: Bulk milk samples were screened for van gene presence using a multiplex PCR. Mastitogenic enterococci isolated from individual milk samples were tested for antimicrobial susceptibility using the broth microdilution method. Strains not susceptible to vancomycin were whole genome sequenced. Results: Overall, vanC genes were detected in 299\/1026 (29.14%) bulk milk samples. Specifically, vanC1 was found in 204 samples (19.88%) and vanC2\/3 in 57 samples (5.56%), with both detected simultaneously in 38 samples (3.70%). Clinically significant vanA and vanB genes were not identified. A total of 163 mastitogenic Enterococcus strains were isolated from individual milk samples. Eight different Enterococcus species were detected, with E. faecium (104\/163, 63.80%) and E. faecalis (34\/163, 20.86%) being the most common. Multidrug resistance was observed in 106\/163 (65.03%) isolates. The most common resistance frequencies were to ciprofloxacin and erythromycin (102\/163, 62.58% both), followed by quinupristin\/dalfopristin (93\/163, 57.06%), linezolid (65\/163, 39.88%), tetracycline (58\/163, 35.58%), daptomycin (46\/163, 28.22%), chloramphenicol (33\/163, 20.25%), ampicillin, tigecycline, and high-dosage gentamycin (8\/163, 4.91% all). Resistance to teicoplanin was not observed. Two vancomycin non-susceptible strains were identified: one vanC2\/3\u00a0E. casseliflavus and one vanC1 E. gallinarum. Whole genome sequencing confirmed the presence of the complete vanC gene cluster and several virulence genes in both strains. Conclusions: Our findings suggest that while raw milk is unlikely to be a source of vancomycin resistance genes of highest clinical importance (vanA or vanB), it may contribute to the spread of vanC enterococci, which are increasingly associated with human infections.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics14080814","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,8]],"date-time":"2025-08-08T11:41:53Z","timestamp":1754653313000},"page":"814","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Does Bovine Raw Milk Represent a Potential Risk for Vancomycin-Resistant Enterococci (VRE) Transmission to Humans?"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4656-2204","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elisa","family":"Massella","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell\u2019Emilia Romagna, Strada Faggiola 1, Gariga di Podenzano, 29027 Piacenza, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0328-5411","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Simone","family":"Russo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell\u2019Emilia Romagna, Strada Faggiola 1, Gariga di Podenzano, 29027 Piacenza, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5214-0334","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anita","family":"Filippi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell\u2019Emilia Romagna, Strada Faggiola 1, Gariga di Podenzano, 29027 Piacenza, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8629-7102","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chiara Anna","family":"Garbarino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell\u2019Emilia Romagna, Strada Faggiola 1, Gariga di Podenzano, 29027 Piacenza, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4923-0216","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Matteo","family":"Ricchi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell\u2019Emilia Romagna, Strada Faggiola 1, Gariga di Podenzano, 29027 Piacenza, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1411-5007","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Patrizia","family":"Bassi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell\u2019Emilia Romagna, Via Pietro Fiorini 5, 40127 Bologna, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elena","family":"Toschi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell\u2019Emilia Romagna, Via Pietro Fiorini 5, 40127 Bologna, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6525-4699","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Camilla","family":"Torreggiani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell\u2019Emilia Romagna, Strada dei Mercati 13a, 43126 Parma, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-5883-992X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giovanni","family":"Pupillo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell\u2019Emilia Romagna, Via Pitagora 2, 42124 Reggio Emilia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7437-1929","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gianluca","family":"Rugna","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell\u2019Emilia Romagna, Via Emilio Diena 16, 41122 Modena, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1054-1348","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Valentina","family":"Carta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell\u2019Emilia Romagna, Via Antonio Bianchi 7\/9, 25124 Brescia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1082-982X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cristina","family":"Bertasio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell\u2019Emilia Romagna, Via Antonio Bianchi 7\/9, 25124 Brescia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5481-6182","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrea","family":"Di Cesare","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Research Council of Italy-Water Research Institute (CNR-IRSA) Molecular Ecology Group (MEG), 28922 Verbania, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0864-0411","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tomasa","family":"Sbaffi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Research Council of Italy-Water Research Institute (CNR-IRSA) Molecular Ecology Group (MEG), 28922 Verbania, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3935-6963","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giulia","family":"Borgomaneiro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Research Council of Italy-Water 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