{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,19]],"date-time":"2026-05-19T19:12:46Z","timestamp":1779217966619,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":87,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,10]],"date-time":"2025-08-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1754784000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100010747","name":"Consejo Nacional de Ciencia, Tecnolog\u00eda e Innovaci\u00f3n Tecnol\u00f3gica","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PE501081775-2022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PE501081775-2022"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100010747","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100010747","name":"Consejo Nacional de Ciencia, Tecnolog\u00eda e Innovaci\u00f3n Tecnol\u00f3gica","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PE501081775-2022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PE501081775-2022"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100010747","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100010747","name":"Consejo Nacional de Ciencia, Tecnolog\u00eda e Innovaci\u00f3n Tecnol\u00f3gica","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PE501081775-2022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PE501081775-2022"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100010747","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100010747","name":"Consejo Nacional de Ciencia, Tecnolog\u00eda e Innovaci\u00f3n Tecnol\u00f3gica","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PE501081775-2022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PE501081775-2022"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100010747","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100010747","name":"Consejo Nacional de Ciencia, Tecnolog\u00eda e Innovaci\u00f3n Tecnol\u00f3gica","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PE501081775-2022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PE501081775-2022"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100010747","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100010747","name":"Consejo Nacional de Ciencia, Tecnolog\u00eda e Innovaci\u00f3n Tecnol\u00f3gica","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PE501081775-2022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PE501081775-2022"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100010747","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100010747","name":"Consejo Nacional de Ciencia, Tecnolog\u00eda e Innovaci\u00f3n Tecnol\u00f3gica (CONCYTEC) and Programa Nacional de Investigaci\u00f3n Cient\u00edfica y Estudios Avanzados (PROCIENCIA)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PE501081775-2022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PE501081775-2022"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100010747","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100010747","name":"Consejo Nacional de Ciencia, Tecnolog\u00eda e Innovaci\u00f3n Tecnol\u00f3gica (CONCYTEC) and Programa Nacional de Investigaci\u00f3n Cient\u00edfica y Estudios Avanzados (PROCIENCIA)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PE501081775-2022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PE501081775-2022"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100010747","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100010747","name":"Consejo Nacional de Ciencia, Tecnolog\u00eda e Innovaci\u00f3n Tecnol\u00f3gica (CONCYTEC) and Programa Nacional de Investigaci\u00f3n Cient\u00edfica y Estudios Avanzados (PROCIENCIA)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PE501081775-2022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PE501081775-2022"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100010747","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Antibiotics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Pigs and cattle have been implicated as reservoirs of antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs) that can spread to humans, and houseflies are considered potential carriers of bacteria with ARGs that could contribute to their spread to the environment, including food, animals, and humans. Methods: In this study, 107, 145, and 127 Escherichia coli strains were isolated from houseflies, pigs, and cattle, respectively, from a slaughterhouse in Lima, Peru. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was performed using the Kirby\u2013Bauer method, where thirteen antibiotics were used. Strains were also plated on CHROMagar COL-APSE agar, and colistin\u2019s minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) was determined. Colistin-resistant E. coli strains were subjected to whole genome sequencing. Results: 7.8% (8\/107), 1.38% (2\/145), and 0.79% (1\/127) of E. coli strains isolated from houseflies, pigs, and cattle, respectively, were resistant to colistin (MIC \u2265 4 \u00b5g\/mL). ARGs associated with resistance to more than 6 different antibiotic classes were identified, including tetracyclines, beta-lactams, fluoroquinolones, nitroimidazoles, trimethoprim and amphenicols. Conclusions: This study suggests that flies could contribute to the dissemination of ARG carrying bacteria and shows the potential risk of animals and meat production systems as reservoirs of ARG carrying bacteria.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics14080818","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,11]],"date-time":"2025-08-11T11:02:09Z","timestamp":1754910129000},"page":"818","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Colistin-Resistant Escherichia coli Isolated from Houseflies and Feces of Cattle and Pigs at a Slaughterhouse in Lima, Peru"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3739-8353","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrea","family":"Carhuallanqui","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Public Health and Environmental Health Laboratory, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima 15081, Peru"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9599-9739","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lorena","family":"Villafana","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Public Health and Environmental Health Laboratory, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima 15081, Peru"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3091-0980","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rosa","family":"Gonzalez-Veliz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Avian Pathology Laboratory, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima 15081, Peru"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0898-2358","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9 F.","family":"Cobo-D\u00edaz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Food Hygiene and Technology and Institute of Food Science and Technology, Universidad de Le\u00f3n, 24004 Le\u00f3n, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Avelino","family":"\u00c1lvarez-Ordo\u00f1ez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Food Hygiene and Technology and Institute of Food Science and Technology, Universidad de Le\u00f3n, 24004 Le\u00f3n, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3176-804X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daphne Doris","family":"Ramos-Delgado","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Public Health and Environmental Health Laboratory, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima 15081, Peru"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"O\u2019Neill, J. (2025, January 03). Antimicrobial Resistance: Tackling a Crisis for the Health and Wealth of Nations. The Review on Antimicrobial Resistance, Chaired by Jim O\u2019Neill. Available online: https:\/\/amr-review.org\/sites\/default\/files\/AMR%20Review%20Paper%20-%20Tackling%20a%20crisis%20for%20the%20health%20and%20wealth%20of%20nations_1.pdf."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stehling, E.G., Calero-C\u00e1ceres, W., Makita, K., and Furlan, J.P.R. (2023). Editorial: Livestock and its role in the emergence, spread, and evolution of antimicrobial resistance: Animal-to-human or animal-to-environment transmission. Front. Vet. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2023.1270955"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106713","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2023.106713","article-title":"Colistin: From the shadows to a One Health approach for addressing antimicrobial resistance","volume":"61","author":"Rhouma","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Poirel, L., Madec, J.Y., Lupo, A., Schink, A.K., Kieffer, N., Nordmann, P., and Schwarz, S. (2018). Antimicrobial Resistance in Escherichia coli. Microbiol. Spectr., 6, 10-1128\/microbiolspec.arba-0026-2017.","DOI":"10.1128\/microbiolspec.ARBA-0026-2017"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2469","DOI":"10.1111\/1462-2920.14961","article-title":"Farm animals and aquaculture: Significant reservoirs of mobile colistin resistance genes","volume":"22","author":"Shen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-16373-0_5","article-title":"Mechanisms of Polymyxin Resistance","volume":"1145","author":"Moffatt","year":"2019","journal-title":"Adv. Exp. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00064-16","article-title":"Polymyxins: Antibacterial Activity, Susceptibility Testing, and Resistance Mechanisms Encoded by Plasmids or Chromosomes","volume":"30","author":"Poirel","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3291","DOI":"10.2147\/IDR.S225383","article-title":"Characterization of Chromosome-Mediated Colistin Resistance in Escherichia coli Isolates from Livestock in Korea","volume":"12","author":"Kim","year":"2019","journal-title":"Infect. Drug Resist."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hamel, M., Rolain, J.M., and Baron, S.A. (2021). The History of Colistin Resistance Mechanisms in Bacteria: Progress and Challenges. Microorganisms, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms9020442"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(15)00424-7","article-title":"Emergence of plasmid-mediated colistin resistance mechanism MCR-1 in animals and human beings in China: A microbiological and molecular biological study","volume":"16","author":"Liu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2897","DOI":"10.1007\/s11033-021-06307-y","article-title":"Mobilized colistin resistance (mcr) genes from 1 to 10: A comprehensive review","volume":"48","author":"Hussein","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tim.2023.10.006","article-title":"Plasmid-mediated colistin-resistance genes: Mcr","volume":"32","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Trends Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"868","DOI":"10.1080\/22221751.2020.1754133","article-title":"Colistin and its role in the Era of antibiotic resistance: An extended review (2000\u20132019)","volume":"9","author":"Zhong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Emerg. Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mondal, A.H., Khare, K., Saxena, P., Debnath, P., Mukhopadhyay, K., and Yadav, D. (2024). A Review on Colistin Resistance: An Antibiotic of Last Resort. Microorganisms, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms12040772"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2008.10.087","article-title":"The house fly (Musca domestica) as a potential vector of metazoan parasites caught in a pig-pen in Germany","volume":"160","author":"Klimpel","year":"2009","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"DC04","article-title":"Bacterial Contamination of Adult House Flies (Musca domestica) and Sensitivity of these Bacteria to Various Antibiotics, Captured from Hamadan City, Iran","volume":"11","author":"Nazari","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clin. Diagn. Res."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Onwugamba, F.C., Mellmann, A., Nwaugo, V.O., S\u00fcselbeck, B., and Schaumburg, F. (2020). Antimicrobial resistant and enteropathogenic bacteria in \u2018filth flies\u2019: A cross-sectional study from Nigeria. Sci. Rep., 10.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-74112-x"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tmaid.2018.02.007","article-title":"The role of \u2018filth flies\u2019 in the spread of antimicrobial resistance","volume":"22","author":"Onwugamba","year":"2018","journal-title":"Travel. Med. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"164","article-title":"Carbapenems and colistin resistance genes isolated in Musca domestica from a garbage dump near a hospital in Lima. Genes resistentes a carbapen\u00e9micos y colistina aislados en Musca domestica proveniente de un basural cercano a un hospital de Lima","volume":"41","author":"Yareta","year":"2024","journal-title":"Rev. Peru. Med. Exp. Salud Publica"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jiph.2015.12.012","article-title":"Molecular detection and antimicrobial resistance of Klebsiella pneumoniae from house flies (Musca domestica) in kitchens, farms, hospitals and slaughterhouses","volume":"9","author":"Ranjbar","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Infect. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1285","DOI":"10.1007\/s40011-016-0705-3","article-title":"Incidencia y resistencia antimicrobiana de Campylobacter y Salmonella de moscas dom\u00e9sticas (Musca domestica) en cocinas, granjas, hospitales y mataderos","volume":"87","author":"Ommi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. India Sect. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.13103\/JFHS.2017.32.2.147","article-title":"Virulence profile and antimicrobial resistance of Escherichia coli from flies captured from agricultural environment","volume":"32","author":"Yun","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Food Hyg. Saf."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"88","article-title":"Frequency and Antimicrobial Resistance Patterns of Bacterial Species Isolated from the Body Surface of the Housefly (Musca domestica) in Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria","volume":"14","author":"Odetoyin","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Arthropod Borne Dis."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaaw1944","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aaw1944","article-title":"Global trends in antimicrobial resistance in animals in low- and middle-income countries","volume":"365","author":"Pires","year":"2019","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1002\/aro2.19","article-title":"Links between industrial livestock production, disease including zoonoses and antimicrobial resistance","volume":"1","author":"Stevenson","year":"2023","journal-title":"Anim. Res. One Health"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2466","DOI":"10.3382\/ps.2007-00249","article-title":"2007. History of the use of antibiotic as growth promoters in European poultry feeds","volume":"86","author":"Castanon","year":"2007","journal-title":"Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2010.03.003","article-title":"An update on alternatives to antimicrobial growth promoters for broilers","volume":"187","author":"Huyghebaert","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Low, C.X., Tan, L.T., Ab Mutalib, N.S., Pusparajah, P., Goh, B.H., Chan, K.G., Letchumanan, V., and Lee, L.H. (2021). Unveiling the Impact of Antibiotics and Alternative Methods for Animal Husbandry: A Review. Antibiotics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics10050578"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wen, R., Li, C., Zhao, M., Wang, H., and Tang, Y. (2022). Withdrawal of antibiotic growth promoters in China and its impact on the foodborne pathogen Campylobacter coli of swine origin. Front. Microbiol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2022.1004725"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Da Silva, R.A., Arenas, N.E., Luiza, V.L., Bermudez, J.A.Z., and Clarke, S.E. (2023). Regulations on the Use of Antibiotics in Livestock Production in South America: A Comparative Literature Analysis. Antibiotics, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics12081303"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5649","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1503141112","article-title":"Global trends in antimicrobial use in food animals","volume":"112","author":"Brower","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e001918","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjgh-2019-001918","article-title":"How antibiotics are used in pig farming: A mixed-methods study of pig farmers, feed mills and veterinarians in Thailand","volume":"5","author":"Lekagul","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMJ Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"215","article-title":"Antimicrobial use in pigs, broilers and veal calves in Belgium","volume":"83","author":"Filippitzi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Vlaams Diergeneeskd. Tijdschrift."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.18004\/mem.iics\/1812-9528\/2022.020.03.51","article-title":"Resistencia antimicrobiana en Escherichia coli de muestras cecales de bovinos para carne faenados en frigor\u00edficos de la zona del arroyo Mburicao, Asunci\u00f3n-Paraguay. A\u00f1o 2021","volume":"20","author":"Busignani","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mem. Inst. Investig. Cienc. Salud"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"782","DOI":"10.22319\/rmcp.v14i4.6354","article-title":"Evaluaci\u00f3n de resistencia a antibi\u00f3ticos en muestras de heces de terneros con diarrea en la regi\u00f3n Cajamarca, Per\u00fa","volume":"14","year":"2023","journal-title":"Rev. Mex. Cienc. Pecu."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1128\/MMBR.65.2.232-260.2001","article-title":"Tetracycline antibiotics: Mode of action, applications, molecular biology, and epidemiology of bacterial resistance","volume":"65","author":"Chopra","year":"2001","journal-title":"Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tokuda, M., and Shintani, M. (2024). Microbial evolution through horizontal gene transfer by mobile genetic elements. Microb. Biotechnol., 17.","DOI":"10.1111\/1751-7915.14408"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1089\/10766290152773329","article-title":"Unusual Inducible Cross Resistance to Macrolides, Lincosamides, and Streptogramins B by Methylase Production in Clinical Isolates of Staphylococcus aureus","volume":"7","author":"Clarebout","year":"2001","journal-title":"Microb. Drug Resist."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"412","DOI":"10.1038\/s41589-020-00715-0","article-title":"Structure of Erm-modified 70S ribosome reveals the mechanism of macrolide resistance","volume":"17","author":"Svetlov","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Chem. Biol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"438","DOI":"10.15381\/rivep.v30i1.15701","article-title":"Determinaci\u00f3n del perfil de resistencia antibi\u00f3tica de Salmonella enterica aislada de cerdos faenados en un matadero de Lima, Per\u00fa","volume":"30","author":"Vilca","year":"2019","journal-title":"Rev. Inv Vet. Per\u00fa"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carhuaricra, D., Duran Gonzales, C.G., Rodr\u00edguez Cueva, C.L., Ignacion Le\u00f3n, Y., Silvestre Espejo, T., Marcelo Monge, G., Rosadio Alc\u00e1ntara, R.H., Lincopan, N., Espinoza, L.L., and Maturrano Hern\u00e1ndez, L. (2022). Occurrence and Genomic Characterization of mcr-1-Harboring Escherichia coli Isolates from Chicken and Pig Farms in Lima, Peru. Antibiotics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics11121781"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bertelloni, F., Bresciani, F., Cagnoli, G., Scotti, B., Lazzerini, L., Marcucci, M., Colombani, G., Bilei, S., Boss\u00f9, T., and De Marchis, M.L. (2023). House Flies (Musca domestica) from Swine and Poultry Farms Carrying Antimicrobial Resistant Enterobacteriaceae and Salmonella. Vet. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/vetsci10020118"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2018.04.024","article-title":"Enterobacteria associated with houseflies (Musca domestica) as an infection risk indicator in swine production farms","volume":"185","author":"Cervelin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.14202\/vetworld.2020.266-274","article-title":"Detection of antibiotic-resistant bacteria and their resistance genes from houseflies","volume":"13","author":"Akter","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vet. World."},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"114","article-title":"Uso de colistina en el sector pecuario: Necesidad de una prohibici\u00f3n global","volume":"37","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta Med. Peru."},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"8228","article-title":"Study on the association between drug resistance and gene mutations of the active efflux pump acrAB tolC gene and its regulatory genes","volume":"17","author":"Ma","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mol. Med. Rep."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1007\/s12223-017-0579-7","article-title":"Genetic characterization of phenicol-resistant Escherichia coli and role of wild-type repressor\/regulator gene (acrR) on phenicol resistance","volume":"63","author":"Yaqoob","year":"2018","journal-title":"Folia Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.4103\/2141-9248.160192","article-title":"Characterization of Escherichia coli Phylogenetic Groups Associated with Extraintestinal Infections in South Indian Population","volume":"5","author":"Chakraborty","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ann. Med. Health Sci. Res."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ewers, C., de Jong, A., Prenger-Berninghoff, E., El Garch, F., Leidner, U., Tiwari, S.K., and Semmler, T. (2021). Genomic Diversity and Virulence Potential of ESBL- and AmpC-\u03b2-Lactamase-Producing Escherichia coli Strains From Healthy Food Animals Across Europe. Front. Microbiol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2021.626774"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Messele, Y.E., Trott, D.J., Hasoon, M.F., Veltman, T., McMeniman, J.P., Kidd, S.P., Djordjevic, S.P., Petrovski, K.R., and Low, W.Y. (2023). Phylogenetic Analysis of Escherichia coli Isolated from Australian Feedlot Cattle in Comparison to Pig Faecal and Poultry\/Human Extraintestinal Isolates. Antibiotics, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics12050895"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mulchandani, R., Wang, Y., Gilbert, M., and Van Boeckel, T.P. (2023). Global trends in antimicrobial use in food-producing animals: 2020 to 2030. PLoS Glob. Public Health, 3.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pgph.0001305"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2227","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.01707-08","article-title":"Resistance Plasmid Families in Enterobacteriaceae","volume":"53","author":"Carattoli","year":"2009","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Medina-Pizzali, M.L., Venkatesh, A., Riveros, M., Cuicapuza, D., Salmon-Mulanovich, G., M\u00e4usezahl, D., and Hartinger, S.M. (2022). Whole-Genome Characterisation of ESBL-Producing E. coli Isolated from Drinking Water and Dog Faeces from Rural Andean Households in Peru. Antibiotics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics11050692"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.23-0247","article-title":"Characterization of the Disinfectant Resistance Genes qacE\u03941 and cepA in Carbapenem-Resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae Isolates","volume":"110","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kovalchuk, S.N., Arkhipova, A.L., Bondar, S.V., Konanov, D.N., Krivonos, D.V., Chulkova, P.S., Ageevets, V.A., Fedorova, L.S., and Ilina, E.N. (2024). A TaqMan real-time PCR assay for detection of qacE\u03941 gene in Gram-negative bacteria. J. Microbiol. Methods, 227.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mimet.2024.107054"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, S., Fu, J., Zhao, K., Yang, S., Li, C., Penttinen, P., Ao, X., Liu, A., Hu, K., and Li, J. (2023). Class 1 integron carrying qacE\u03941 gene confers resistance to disinfectant and antibiotics in Salmonella. Int. J. Food Microbiol., 404.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2023.110319"},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"World Health Organisation WHO (2024, April 19). List of Critically Important Antimicrobials for Human Medicine. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/publications\/i\/item\/9789241515528."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Olaitan, A.O., Morand, S., and Rolain, J.M. (2014). Mechanisms of polymyxin resistance: Acquired and intrinsic resistance in bacteria. Front. Microbiol., 5.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2014.00643"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"583","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2016.06.023","article-title":"Molecular mechanisms of polymyxin resistance: Knowns and unknowns","volume":"48","author":"Baron","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"526","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2016.11.029","article-title":"Resistance to polymyxins in Gram-negative organisms","volume":"49","author":"Jeannot","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Choi, Y., Lee, J.Y., Lee, H., Park, M., Kang, K., Lim, S.K., Shin, D., and Ko, K.S. (2020). Comparison of Fitness Cost and Virulence in Chromosome- and Plasmid-Mediated Colistin-Resistant Escherichia coli. Front. Microbiol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2020.00798"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resmic.2017.09.006","article-title":"Clamping down on drugs: The Escherichia coli multidrug efflux protein MdtM","volume":"169","author":"Law","year":"2018","journal-title":"Res. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Holdsworth, S.R., and Law, C.J. (2013). Multidrug resistance protein MdtM adds to the repertoire of antiporters involved in alkaline pH homeostasis in Escherichia coli. BMC Microbiol., 13.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2180-13-113"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Song, H.J., Kim, S.J., Moon, D.C., Mechesso, A.F., Choi, J.H., Kang, H.Y., Boby, N., Yoon, S.S., and Lim, S.K. (2022). Antimicrobial Resistance in Escherichia coli Isolates from Healthy Food Animals in South Korea, 2010\u20132020. Microorganisms, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms10030524"},{"key":"ref_65","first-page":"50","article-title":"Emergence of colistin-resistant Escherichia coli in poultry, house flies, and pond water in Mymensingh, Bangladesh","volume":"6","author":"Sobur","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Adv. Vet. Anim. Res."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gwenzi, W., Chaukura, N., Muisa-Zikali, N., Teta, C., Musvuugwa, T., Rzymski, P., and Abia, A.L.K. (2021). Insects, Rodents, and Pets as Reservoirs, Vectors, and Sentinels of Antimicrobial Resistance. Antibiotics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics10010068"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1603\/EN11155","article-title":"Population dynamics of stable flies Stomoxys calcitrans (Diptera: Muscidae) at an organic dairy farm in Denmark based on mark-recapture with destructive sub-sampling","volume":"41","author":"Nachman","year":"2012","journal-title":"Environ. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Farag, T.H., Faruque, A.S., Wu, Y., Das, S.K., Hossain, A., Ahmed, S., Ahmed, D., Nasrin, D., Kotloff, K.L., and Panchilangam, S. (2013). Housefly population density correlates with shigellosis among children in Mirzapur, Bangladesh: A time series analysis. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0002280"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stelder, J.J., Kj\u00e6r, L.J., Jensen, L.B., Boklund, A.E., Denwood, M., Carlsen, M., and B\u00f8dker, R. (2021). Livestock-associated MRSA survival on house flies (Musca domestica) and stable flies (Stomoxys calcitrans) after removal from a Danish pig farm. Sci. Rep., 11.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-83228-7"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wetzker, W., Pfeifer, Y., Wolke, S., Haselbeck, A., Leistner, R., Kola, A., Gastmeier, P., and Salm, F. (2019). Extended-Spectrum Beta-Lactamase (ESBL)-Producing Escherichia coli Isolated from Flies in the Urban Center of Berlin, Germany. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph16091530"},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"Greenberg, B. (1971). Flies and Disease, Princeton University Press. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_72","first-page":"e52372","article-title":"Detection of foodborne bacterial pathogens from individual filth flies","volume":"96","author":"Pearson","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Vis. Exp."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1345","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2018.03.304","article-title":"Carrier flies of multidrug-resistant Escherichia coli as potential dissemination agent in dairy farm environment","volume":"633","author":"Alves","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"Ewing, W.H. (1986). Edwards and Ewing\u2019s Identification of Enterobacteriaceae, Elsevier. [4th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_75","first-page":"1","article-title":"BAM: Enumeration of Escherichia coli and the Coliform Bacteria","volume":"Volume 13","author":"Feng","year":"2002","journal-title":"Bacteriological Analytical Manual"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"563","DOI":"10.4315\/JFP-21-430","article-title":"Phenotypic and Genotypic Assessment of Antimicrobial Resistance in Escherichia coli from Australian Cattle Populations at Slaughter","volume":"85","author":"Barlow","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Food Prot."},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"(2021). Performance standards for antimicrobial susceptibility testing, 31st ed (Standard No. M100)."},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"Institute of Infectious Diseases (2024, April 20). National Administration of Laboratories and Health Institutes \u201cDr. Carlos, G. Malbr\u00e1n\u201d. PCR Protocol for the Detection of the Mcr-1 Gene in Gram-Negative Bacilli Isolates. Available online: https:\/\/antimicrobianos.com.ar\/ATB\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/04\/Detecci%c3%b3n-mcr-1-v1.pdf."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2114","DOI":"10.1093\/bioinformatics\/btu170","article-title":"Trimmomatic: A flexible trimmer for Illumina sequence data","volume":"30","author":"Bolger","year":"2014","journal-title":"Bioinformatics"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1089\/cmb.2012.0021","article-title":"SPAdes: A new genome assembly algorithm and its applications to single-cell sequencing","volume":"19","author":"Bankevich","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Comput. Biol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2410","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.00008-15","article-title":"Rapid and Easy In Silico Serotyping of Escherichia coli Isolates by Use of Whole-Genome Sequencing Data","volume":"53","author":"Joensen","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Waters, N.R., Abram, F., Brennan, F., Holmes, A., and Pritchard, L. (2020). Easy phylotyping of Escherichia coli via the EzClermont web app and command-line tool. Access Microbiol., 2.","DOI":"10.1099\/acmi.0.000143"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3895","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.02412-14","article-title":"In silico detection and typing of plasmids using PlasmidFinder and plasmid multilocus sequence typing","volume":"58","author":"Carattoli","year":"2024","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2006-0007","DOI":"10.1038\/msb4100049","article-title":"Highly accurate genome sequences of Escherichia coli K-12 strains MG1655 and W3110","volume":"2","author":"Hayashi","year":"2006","journal-title":"Mol. Syst. Biol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3025","DOI":"10.1093\/bioinformatics\/bty195","article-title":"Genome-by-genome approach for fast bacterial genealogical relationship evaluation","volume":"34","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Bioinformatics"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1160","DOI":"10.1093\/bib\/bbx108","article-title":"MAFFT online service: Multiple sequence alignment, interactive sequence choice and visualization","volume":"20","author":"Katoh","year":"2018","journal-title":"Brief. Bioinform."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1093\/molbev\/msh018","article-title":"Neighbor-Net: An agglomerative method for the construction of phylogenetic networks","volume":"21","author":"Bryant","year":"2004","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Evol."}],"container-title":["Antibiotics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6382\/14\/8\/818\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:27:33Z","timestamp":1760034453000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6382\/14\/8\/818"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,10]]},"references-count":87,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8]]}},"alternative-id":["antibiotics14080818"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/antibiotics14080818","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-6382"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-6382","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,10]]}}}