{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,20]],"date-time":"2026-05-20T16:58:47Z","timestamp":1779296327347,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":82,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1760140800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Genomic ASSETS (Antimicrobial Stewardship Systems from Evidence-based Treatment Strategies) for Livestock"},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100008762","name":"Genome Canada","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100008762","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100010788","name":"Genome Prairie","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100010788","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100010787","name":"Genome Alberta","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100010787","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100008921","name":"Saskatchewan Agriculture Development Fund","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100008921","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100005019","name":"Beef Cattle Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100005019","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"National Sciences and Engineering Research Council"},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100008920","name":"University of Saskatchewan","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100008920","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000190","name":"University of Alberta","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000190","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Antibiotics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Antimicrobial drugs are used to treat bacterial diseases in livestock production systems, including bovine respiratory disease (BRD) in feedlot cattle. It is recommended that therapeutic antimicrobial use (AMU) in food animals be informed by diagnostic tests to limit the emergence of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and preserve the effectiveness of available drugs. Recent evidence demonstrates preliminary support for the pen as a prospective target for AMR testing-based interventions in higher-risk cattle. Methods: A previously reported agent-based model (ABM) was modified and then used in this study to investigate the potential for different pen-level sampling and laboratory testing-informed BRD treatment strategies to favorably impact selected antimicrobial stewardship and management outcomes in the western Canadian context. The incorporation of sample testing to guide treatment choice was hypothesized to reduce BRD relapses, subsequent AMU treatments and resultant AMR in sentinel pathogen Mannheimia haemolytica. The ABM was extended to include a discrete event simulation (DES) workflow that models the testing process, including the time at sample collection (0 or 13 days on feed) and the type of AMR diagnostic test (antimicrobial susceptibility testing or long-read metagenomic sequencing). Candidate testing scenarios were simulated for both a test-only control and testing-informed treatment (TI) setting (n = 52 total experiments). Key model outputs were generated for both the pen and feedlot levels and extracted to data repositories. Results: There was no effect of the TI strategy on the stewardship or economic outcomes of interest under baseline ecological and treatment conditions. Changes in the type and number of uses by antimicrobial class were observed when baseline AMR in M. haemolytica was assumed to be higher at feedlot arrival, but there was no corresponding impact on subsequent resistance or morbidity measures. The impacts of sample timing and diagnostic test accuracy on AMR test positivity and other outputs were subsequently explored with a theoretical \u201cextreme\u201d BRD treatment protocol that maximized selection pressure for AMR. Conclusions: The successful implementation of a pen-level sampling and diagnostic strategy would be critically dependent on many interrelated factors, including the BRD treatment protocol, the prevalences of resistance to the treatment classes, the accuracy of available AMR diagnostic tests, and the selected \u201ctreatment change\u201d thresholds. This study demonstrates how the hybrid ABM-DES model can be used for future experimentation with interventions proposed to limit AMR risk in the context of BRD management.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics14101009","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]],"date-time":"2025-10-13T08:10:31Z","timestamp":1760343031000},"page":"1009","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["The Potential for Sample Testing at the Pen Level to Inform Prudent Antimicrobial Selection for Bovine Respiratory Disease Treatment: Investigations Using a Feedlot Simulation Tool"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Dana E.","family":"Ramsay","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5B4, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4763-3414","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wade","family":"McDonald","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5C9, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sheryl P.","family":"Gow","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Canadian Integrated Program for Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance, Public Health Agency of Canada, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5B4, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Lianne","family":"McLeod","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5B4, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3270-4032","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Simon J. G.","family":"Otto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"HEAT-AMR (Human-Environment-Animal Transdisciplinary AMR) Research Group, School of Public Health, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2J7, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3994-3298","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nathaniel D.","family":"Osgood","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5C9, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7152-4261","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cheryl L.","family":"Waldner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5B4, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2025, June 08). Antimicrobial Resistance. (November 2023). Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/antimicrobial-resistance."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"629","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(21)02724-0","article-title":"Global burden of bacterial antimicrobial resistance in 2019: A systematic analysis","volume":"399","author":"Murray","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"World Organization for Animal Health (2025, June 08). Antimicrobial Resistance. Available online: https:\/\/www.woah.org\/en\/what-we-do\/global-initiatives\/antimicrobial-resistance\/."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2025, June 08). Drivers, Dynamics and Epidemiology of Antimicrobial Resistance in Animal Production. Available online: https:\/\/openknowledge.fao.org\/server\/api\/core\/bitstreams\/95efae06-4da2-4689-b12a-1b33fffc2244\/content."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1350","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aao1495","article-title":"Reducing antimicrobial use in food animals","volume":"357","author":"Glennon","year":"2017","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lhermie, G., Grohn, Y.T., and Raboisson, D. (2017). Addressing antimicrobial resistance: An overview of priority actions to prevent suboptimal antimicrobial use in food-animal production. Front. Microbiol., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2016.02114"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1186\/s13643-025-02829-9","article-title":"Government policy interventions to reduce veterinary antimicrobial consumption in production animals: A protocol for a systematic review and evidence map","volume":"14","author":"Strong","year":"2025","journal-title":"Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Government of Canada (2025, June 08). Pan-Canadian Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance. Available online: https:\/\/www.canada.ca\/content\/dam\/phac-aspc\/documents\/services\/publications\/drugs-health-products\/pan-canadian-action-plan-antimicrobial-resistance\/pan-canadian-action-plan-antimicrobial-resistance.pdf."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2025, June 08). The FAO Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance 2021\u20132025. Available online: https:\/\/openknowledge.fao.org\/server\/api\/core\/bitstreams\/dd6c0ba1-fd85-4a3e-b398-53b610c35318\/content."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cvfa.2010.03.005","article-title":"Control methods for bovine respiratory disease for feedlot cattle","volume":"26","author":"Edwards","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vet. Clin. N. Am. Food Anim. Pract."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"1351","article-title":"The epidemiology of bovine respiratory disease: What is the evidence for preventive measures?","volume":"51","author":"Taylor","year":"2010","journal-title":"Can. Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Canadian Feedlot Antimicrobial Use and Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance Program (2025, June 08). World Antimicrobial Awareness Week Presentation. Available online: https:\/\/cahss.ca\/CAHSS\/Assets\/Documents\/CIPARS%20Feedlot%20WAAW%20and%20industry%20presentation%20EN%20Final.pdf."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"1095","article-title":"The epidemiology of bovine respiratory disease: What is the evidence for predisposing factors?","volume":"51","author":"Taylor","year":"2010","journal-title":"Can. Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brault, S.A., Hannon, S.J., Gow, S.P., Warr, B.N., Withell, J., Song, J., Williams, C.M., Otto, S., Booker, C.W., and Morley, P.S. (2019). Antimicrobial use on 36 beef feedlots in western Canada: 2008\u20132012. Front. Vet. Sci., 6.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2019.00329"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cameron, A., and McAllister, T.A. (2016). Antimicrobial usage and resistance in beef production. J. Anim. Sci. Biotechnol., 7.","DOI":"10.1186\/s40104-016-0127-3"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1017\/S146625232000016X","article-title":"Bovine respiratory disease treatment failure: Definition and impact","volume":"21","author":"Booker","year":"2020","journal-title":"Anim. Health Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Otto, S.J.G., Pollock, C.M., Relf-Eckstein, J., McLeod, L., and Waldner, C.L. (2024). Opportunities for laboratory testing to inform antimicrobial use for bovine respiratory disease: Application of Information Quality Value Stream Maps in commercial feedlots. Antibiotics, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics13090903"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kamel, M.S., Davidson, J.L., and Verma, M.S. (2024). Strategies for bovine respiratory disease (BRD) diagnosis and prognosis: A comprehensive overview. Animals, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani14040627"},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"O\u2019Neill, J. (2025, June 08). Tackling Drug-Resistant Infections Globally: Final Report and Recommendations. London, UK: The Review on Antimicrobial Resistance. Available online: https:\/\/amr-review.org\/sites\/default\/files\/160525_Final%20paper_with%20cover.pdf."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1186\/s13756-017-0294-9","article-title":"World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines on use of medically important antimicrobials in food-producing animals","volume":"7","author":"Angulo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Resist. Infect. Control."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1017\/S1466252309990193","article-title":"Update on bacterial pathogenesis in BRD","volume":"10","author":"Confer","year":"2009","journal-title":"Anim. Health Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cvfa.2020.03.004","article-title":"Bovine respiratory disease diagnosis: What progress has been made in clinical diagnosis?","volume":"36","author":"Buczinski","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vet. Clin. N. Am. Food Anim. Pract."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abi Younes, J.N., Campbell, J.R., Otto, S.J.G., Gow, S.P., Woolums, A.R., Jelinski, M., Lacoste, S., and Waldner, C.L. (2024). Variation in pen-level prevalence of BRD bacterial pathogens and antimicrobial resistance following feedlot arrival in beef calves. Antibiotics, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics13040322"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abi Younes, J.N., Campbell, J.R., Gow, S.P., Woolums, A.R., and Waldner, C.L. (2024). Association between respiratory disease pathogens in calves near feedlot arrival with treatment for bovine respiratory disease and subsequent antimicrobial resistance status. Front. Vet. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2024.1416436"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2014.08.013","article-title":"Progression to multi-scale models and the application to food system intervention strategies","volume":"118","year":"2015","journal-title":"Prev. Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jval.2014.12.001","article-title":"Applying dynamic simulation modeling methods in health care delivery research\u2014The SIMULATE checklist: Report of the ISPOR simulation modeling emerging good practices task force","volume":"18","author":"Marshall","year":"2015","journal-title":"Value Health"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ramsay, D., McDonald, W., Thompson, M., Erickson, N., Gow, S., Osgood, N.D., and Waldner, C. (2025). Contagious acquisition of antimicrobial resistance is critical for explaining emergence in western Canadian feedlots\u2014Insights from an agent-based modelling tool. Front. Vet. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2024.1466986"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7280","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.082080899","article-title":"Agent-based modeling: Methods and techniques for simulating human systems","volume":"99","author":"Bonabeau","year":"2002","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolmodel.2006.04.023","article-title":"A standard protocol for describing individual-based and agent-based models","volume":"198","author":"Grimm","year":"2006","journal-title":"Ecol. Model"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.18564\/jasss.4259","article-title":"The ODD protocol for describing agent-based and other simulation models: A second update to improve clarity, replication and structural realism","volume":"23","author":"Grimm","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Artif. Soc. Soc. Simul."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Herman, E.K., Lacoste, S.R., Freeman, C.N., Otto, S.J.G., McCarthy, E.L., Links, M.G., Stothard, P., and Waldner, C.L. (2024). Bacterial enrichment prior to third-generation metagenomic sequencing improves detection of BRD pathogens and genetic determinants of antimicrobial resistance in feedlot cattle. Front. Microbiol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2024.1386319"},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"920","article-title":"Changes in the phenotypic susceptibility of Mannheimia haemolytica isolates to macrolide antimicrobials during the early feeding period following metaphylactic tulathromycin use in western Canadian feedlot calves","volume":"63","author":"Ramsay","year":"2022","journal-title":"Can. Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"705","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.12547","article-title":"Mannheimia haemolytica in feedlot cattle: Prevalence of recovery and associations with antimicrobial use, resistance and health outcomes","volume":"29","author":"Noyes","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.21423\/bovine-vol51no2p165-173","article-title":"Changes in the rates of field isolation and antimicrobial susceptibility of bacterial pathogens collected from fall-placed feedlot steers between arrival at the feedlot and 90 to 120 days on feed","volume":"51","author":"Erickson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Bov. Pract."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2017.07.013","article-title":"Prevalence and antimicrobial susceptibility of Mannheimia haemolytica, Pasteurella multocida, and Histophilus somni isolated from the lower respiratory tract of healthy feedlot cattle and those diagnosed with bovine respiratory disease","volume":"208","author":"Timsit","year":"2017","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Andr\u00e9s-Lasheras, S., Ha, R., Zaheer, R., Lee, C., Booker, C.W., Dorin, C., Van Donkersgoed, J., Deardon, R., Gow, S., and Hannon, S.J. (2021). Prevalence and risk factors associated with antimicrobial resistance in bacteria related to bovine respiratory disease\u2014A broad cross-sectional study of beef cattle at entry into Canadian feedlots. Front. Vet. Sci., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2021.692646"},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Gow, S., Bergen, R., Booker, C., Butters, A., Dorin, C., Dimmers, G., Erickson, N., Hannon, S., Hendrick, S., and Ramsay, D. (2021, January 7\u20139). National Surveillance of Antimicrobial Use and Antimicrobial Resistance in Canadian Feedlots. Proceedings of the Fifty-Fourth Annual Conference, American Association of Bovine Practitioners, Salt Lake City, UT, USA. Available online: https:\/\/bovine-ojs-tamu.tdl.org\/AABP\/article\/view\/8291."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"47","article-title":"Antimicrobial resistance in bovine respiratory disease: Auction market- and ranch-raised calves","volume":"63","author":"Wennekamp","year":"2022","journal-title":"Can. Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cvfa.2015.06.001","article-title":"Treatment of calves with bovine respiratory disease: Duration of therapy and posttreatment intervals","volume":"31","author":"Apley","year":"2015","journal-title":"Vet. Clin. N. Am. Food Anim. Pract."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Smith, K.J., White, B.J., Amrine, D.E., Larson, R.L., Theurer, M.E., Szasz, J.I., Bryant, T.C., and Waggoner, J.W. (2023). Evaluation of first treatment timing, fatal disease onset, and days from first treatment to death associated with bovine respiratory disease in feedlot cattle. Vet. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/vetsci10030204"},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"54","article-title":"Diagnosis and therapy of feedlot lameness","volume":"53","author":"Apley","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. Assoc. Bov. Pract. Conf. Proc."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2014.12.009","article-title":"Antimicrobial susceptibility testing for bovine respiratory disease: Getting more from diagnostic results","volume":"203","author":"Lubbers","year":"2015","journal-title":"Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Abi Younes, J.N., McLeod, L., Otto, S.J.G., Chai, Z., Lacoste, S., McCarthy, E.L., Links, M.G., Herman, E.K., Stothard, P., and Gow, S.P. (2025). Evaluating the diagnostic performance of long-read metagenomic sequencing compared to culture and antimicrobial susceptibility testing for detection of bovine respiratory bacteria and indicators of antimicrobial resistance. Antibiotics, in submitted."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2014","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268818002091","article-title":"Application of dynamic modelling techniques to the problem of antibacterial use and resistance: A scoping review","volume":"146","author":"Ramsay","year":"2018","journal-title":"Epidemiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"835","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jval.2012.04.014","article-title":"Model Parameter Estimation and Uncertainty: A Report of the ISPOR-SMDM Modeling Good Research Practices Task Force-6","volume":"15","author":"Briggs","year":"2012","journal-title":"Value Health"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"843","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jval.2012.04.012","article-title":"Model Transparency and Validation: A Report of the ISPOR-SMDM Modeling Good Research Practices Task Force-7","volume":"15","author":"Eddy","year":"2012","journal-title":"Value Health"},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Canadian Feedlot Antimicrobial Use and Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance Program (2025, June 19). Bovine Respiratory Disease (BRD) Pathogen Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) Update\u20142022. Available online: https:\/\/cfaasp.ca\/resources\/cfaasp-resources\/Bovine-Respiratory-Disease-BRD-Pathogen-Antimicrobial-Resistance-AMR-Update-2022."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rattanapanadda, P., Ramsay, D., Butters, A., Booker, C.W., Hannon, S.J., Hendrick, S., Van Donkersgoed, J., Warr, B.N., Gow, S.P., and Morley, P.S. (2025). The prevalence and antimicrobial resistance of respiratory pathogens isolated from feedlot cattle in Canada. Front. Microbiol., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2025.1497402"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Andr\u00e9s-Lasheras, S., Jelinski, M., Zaheer, R., and McAllister, T.A. (2022). Bovine respiratory disease: Conventional to culture-independent approaches to studying antimicrobial resistance in North America. Antibiotics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics11040487"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.aje.a117428","article-title":"Bayesian estimation of disease prevalence and the parameters of diagnostic tests in the absence of a gold standard","volume":"141","author":"Joseph","year":"1995","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Freeman, C.N., Herman, E.K., Abi Younes, J., Ramsay, D.E., Erickson, N., Stothard, P., Links, M.G., Otto, S.J.G., and Waldner, C. (2022). Evaluating the potential of third generation metagenomic sequencing for the detection of BRD pathogens and genetic determinants of antimicrobial resistance in chronically ill feedlot cattle. BMC Vet Res., 18.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-022-03269-6"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kos, D., Jelinski, M., and Ruzzini, A. (2025). Retrospective analysis of antimicrobial resistance associated with bovine respiratory disease. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 91.","DOI":"10.1128\/aem.01909-24"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2010.09.003","article-title":"Temporal distributions of respiratory disease events within cohorts of feedlot cattle and associations with cattle health and performance indices","volume":"97","author":"Babcock","year":"2010","journal-title":"Prev. Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Canadian Feedlot Antimicrobial Use and Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance Program (2025, June 19). Bovine Respiratory Disease (BRD) Pathogen Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) Update\u2014CFAASP 2023. Available online: https:\/\/cfaasp.ca\/resources\/cfaasp-resources\/Bovine_Respiratory_Disease_BRD_Pathogen_Antimicrobial_Resistance_Update_CFAASP_2023."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Government of Canada (2025, May 18). Categorization of Antimicrobial Drugs Based on Importance in Human Medicine (Version\u2014April) 2009. Available online: https:\/\/www.canada.ca\/en\/health-canada\/services\/drugs-health-products\/veterinary-drugs\/antimicrobial-resistance\/categorization-antimicrobial-drugs-based-importance-human-medicine.html."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"European Food Safety Authority (2023). The European Union Summary Report on Antimicrobial Resistance in zoonotic and indicator bacteria from humans, animals and food in 2020\/2021. EFSA J., 21, e07867.","DOI":"10.2903\/j.efsa.2023.7867"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1277","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.79.12.1277","article-title":"Evaluation of animal-to-animal and community contact structures determined by a real-time location system for correlation with and prediction of new bovine respiratory disease diagnoses in beef cattle during the first 28 days after feedlot entry","volume":"79","author":"Shane","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_58","first-page":"1124","article-title":"Prevalence of multi drug antimicrobial resistance in Mannheimia haemolytica isolated from high-risk stocker cattle at arrival and two weeks after processing","volume":"95","author":"Snyder","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Anim. Sci."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"Government of Canada (2025, May 22). Tackling Antimicrobial Resistance and Antimicrobial Use: A Pan-Canadian Framework for Action. August 2017. Available online: https:\/\/www.canada.ca\/content\/dam\/hc-sc\/documents\/services\/publications\/drugs-health-products\/tackling-antimicrobial-resistance-use-pan-canadian-framework-action\/tackling-antimicrobial-resistance-use-pan-canadian-framework-action.pdf."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"608","DOI":"10.1007\/s43678-023-00514-1","article-title":"The impact of alternate level of care on access block and operational strategies to reduce emergency wait times: A multi-center simulation study","volume":"25","author":"Tian","year":"2023","journal-title":"CJEM"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"V\u00e1zquez-Serrano, J.I., Peimbert-Garc\u00eda, R.E., and C\u00e1rdenas-Barr\u00f3n, L.E. (2021). Discrete-event simulation modeling in healthcare: A comprehensive review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph182212262"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106009","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2023.106009","article-title":"Modeling the effects of farming practices on bovine respiratory disease in a multi-batch fattening farm","volume":"219","author":"Picault","year":"2023","journal-title":"Prev. Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1186\/s13567-022-01094-1","article-title":"Modelling the effects of antimicrobial metaphylaxis and pen size on bovine respiratory disease in high and low risk fattening cattle","volume":"53","author":"Picault","year":"2022","journal-title":"Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"Genome Prairie (2025, July 02). The ASSETS Project: Fighting Antibiotic Resistance in Livestock. Available online: https:\/\/genomeprairie.ca\/the-assets-project-fighting-antibiotic-resistance\/."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fossen, J.D., Campbell, J.R., Gow, S.P., Erickson, N., and Waldner, C.L. (2023). Antimicrobial use in Canadian cow-calf herds. Vet. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/vetsci10050366"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cvfa.2010.04.004","article-title":"Bacterial pathogens of the bovine respiratory disease complex","volume":"26","author":"Griffin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vet. Clin. N. Am. Food Anim. Pract."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1751-0813.2003.tb13367.x","article-title":"The medicine and epidemiology of bovine respiratory disease in feedlots","volume":"81","author":"Cusack","year":"2003","journal-title":"Aust. Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nobrega, D., Andr\u00e9s-Lasheras, S., Zaheer, R., McAllister, T., Homerosky, E., Anholt, R.M., and Dorin, C. (2021). Prevalence, risk factors, and antimicrobial resistance profile of respiratory pathogens isolated from suckling beef calves to reprocessing at the feedlot: A longitudinal study. Front. Vet. Sci., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2021.764701"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1017\/S1466252320000031","article-title":"A systematic review and network meta-analysis of injectable antibiotic options for control of bovine respiratory disease in the first 45 days post arrival at the feedlot","volume":"20","author":"Hu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Anim. Health Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_70","unstructured":"Ribble, C.S., Stitt, T., Iwasawa, S., Toews, L., and Stephen, C. (2010). A Review of Alternative Practices to Antimicrobial Use for Disease Control in the Commercial Feedlot, National Collaborating Centre for Infectious Diseases. Available online: https:\/\/nccid.ca\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2020\/01\/CattleFeedlots_Ribble.pdf."},{"key":"ref_71","first-page":"103","article-title":"Comparative efficacy of tilmicosin, florfenicol, and florfenicol-flunixin meglumine for treatment of undifferentiated fever in backgrounded winter-placed feedlot calves given tilmicosin metaphylactically on arrival","volume":"48","author":"Merrill","year":"2014","journal-title":"Bov. Pract."},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"Canadian Academy of Health Sciences (2025, May 27). Antimicrobial Resistance\/Antimicrobial Use in Food-Producing Animals in Canada: Strategic Interventions to Strengthen Antimicrobial Stewardship. Available online: https:\/\/cahs-acss.ca\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/CAHS-AMU-Report_EN_Final-1.pdf."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2017.12.015","article-title":"Injectable antimicrobials in commercial feedlot cattle and their effect on the nasopharyngeal microbiota and antimicrobial resistance","volume":"214","author":"Holman","year":"2018","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2018.06.005","article-title":"Multidrug resistant Mannheimia haemolytica isolated from high-risk beef stocker cattle after antimicrobial metaphylaxis and treatment for bovine respiratory disease","volume":"221","author":"Woolums","year":"2018","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Crosby, W.B., Karisch, B.B., Hiott, L.M., Pinnell, L.J., Pittman, A., Frye, J.G., Jackson, C.R., Loy, J.D., Epperson, W.B., and Blanton, J. (2023). Tulathromycin metaphylaxis increases nasopharyngeal isolation of multidrug resistant Mannheimia haemolytica in stocker heifers. Front. Vet. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2023.1256997"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adewusi, O.O., Nykiforuk, C.I.J., Waldner, C.L., Erickson, N.E.N., Gow, S.P., and Otto, S.J.G. (2025). Laboratory testing to inform antimicrobial use for bovine respiratory disease: Perceptions of Canadian feedlot veterinarians. Vet. Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/vetsci12050409"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"400","DOI":"10.1177\/10406387241235968","article-title":"Laboratory tools for the direct detection of bacterial respiratory infections and antimicrobial resistance: A scoping review","volume":"26","author":"Adewusi","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Vet. Diagn. Investig."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"460","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1525-1497.2004.30091.x","article-title":"The use of \u201coverall accuracy\u201d to evaluate the validity of screening or diagnostic tests","volume":"19","author":"Alberg","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Gen. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Klima, C.L., Holman, D.B., Cook, S.R., Conrad, C.C., Ralston, B.J., Allan, N., Anholt, R.M., Niu, Y.D., Stanford, K., and Hannon, S.J. (2020). Multidrug resistance in Pasteurellaceae associated with bovine respiratory disease mortalities in North America from 2011 to 2016. Front. Microbiol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2020.606438"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wickware, C.L., Ellis, A.C., Verma, M., and Johnson, T.A. (2025). Phenotypic antibiotic resistance prediction using antibiotic resistance genes and machine learning models in Mannheimia haemolytica. Vet. Microbiol., 302.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2025.110372"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2219827120","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2219827120","article-title":"A neglected and emerging antimicrobial resistance gene encodes for a serine-dependent macrolide esterase","volume":"120","author":"Dhindwal","year":"2023","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3059","DOI":"10.1534\/g3.117.1137","article-title":"Whole-genome sequencing and concordance between antimicrobial susceptibility genotypes and phenotypes of bacterial isolates associated with bovine respiratory disease","volume":"7","author":"Owen","year":"2017","journal-title":"G3 Genes Genomes Genet."}],"container-title":["Antibiotics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6382\/14\/10\/1009\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,14]],"date-time":"2025-10-14T04:19:17Z","timestamp":1760415557000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6382\/14\/10\/1009"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]]},"references-count":82,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10]]}},"alternative-id":["antibiotics14101009"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/antibiotics14101009","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-6382"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-6382","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]]}}}