{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,27]],"date-time":"2026-03-27T07:58:14Z","timestamp":1774598294339,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":34,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,11]],"date-time":"2025-11-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1762819200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Innovative Team Project of Nanjing Institute of Environmental Sciences, MEE","award":["ZX2023QT012"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZX2023QT012"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Antibiotics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Although hydrolysis and photolysis are important pathways for penicillin antibiotics degradation in aquatic ecosystems, the degradation mechanism of penicillin antibiotics in real natural waters is rarely reported. Furthermore, the dominant factors influencing this process are poorly understood. Methods: Therefore, five natural waters were selected to simulate both the hydrolysis and photolysis processes of penicillin G (PG) in aqueous environments. Results: Our results demonstrated that the half-life of PG hydrolysis ranged from 44 h to 141 h in natural water, and aqueous Ca2+ ion was the most important factor controlling the hydrolytic degradation of PG. Moreover, several biological dissolved organic matter (DOM, microbial by-product compounds) could also promote the PG hydrolysis reaction. Direct photolysis of PG is dominated in natural water, for which half-life photodegradation rates were 6 h in both blank and natural water, suggesting that salinity and DOM have little influence on penicillin photolysis. The hydrolysis reaction mainly involved the cleavage of the ester bond in the \u03b2-lactam ring and a decarboxylation process, while photolysis degradation principally included the hydroxylation of the benzene ring and destruction of the thiazole ring. Conclusions: This study demonstrates the significant factors influencing hydrolysis and photolysis of penicillin antibiotics in an aquatic ecosystem, which can improve the estimates of ecological risk of antibiotic pharmaceuticals in a realistic environment.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics14111144","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,11]],"date-time":"2025-11-11T12:44:55Z","timestamp":1762865095000},"page":"1144","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["The Domination of Penicillin G Degradation in Natural Surface Water: Effect of Calcium Ion and Biological Dissolved Organic Matter"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Feng","family":"Sheng","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Soil Environmental Management and Pollution Control, Nanjing Institute of Environmental Sciences, Ministry of Ecology and Environment, Nanjing 210042, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jingyi","family":"Ling","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Jiangsu Province Engineering Research Center of Synergistic Control of Pollution and Carbon Emissions in Key Industries, Jiangsu Provincial Environmental Engineering Technology Co., Ltd., Nanjing 210019, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Na","family":"Mi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Soil Environmental Management and Pollution Control, Nanjing Institute of Environmental Sciences, Ministry of Ecology and Environment, Nanjing 210042, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jixing","family":"Wan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Soil Environmental Management and Pollution Control, Nanjing Institute of Environmental Sciences, Ministry of Ecology and Environment, Nanjing 210042, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Lu","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Soil Environmental Management and Pollution Control, Nanjing Institute of Environmental Sciences, Ministry of Ecology and Environment, Nanjing 210042, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ming","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Soil Environmental Management and Pollution Control, Nanjing Institute of Environmental Sciences, Ministry of Ecology and Environment, Nanjing 210042, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Chao","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Jiangsu Province Engineering Research Center of Synergistic Control of Pollution and Carbon Emissions in Key Industries, Jiangsu Provincial Environmental Engineering Technology Co., Ltd., Nanjing 210019, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0492-3772","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jiaqi","family":"Shi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Soil Environmental Management and Pollution Control, Nanjing Institute of Environmental Sciences, Ministry of Ecology and Environment, Nanjing 210042, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2007.07.016","article-title":"Determination of penicillin G and its degradation products in a penicillin production wastewater treatment plant and the receiving river","volume":"42","author":"Li","year":"2008","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1016\/S1068-607X(97)00012-7","article-title":"Penicillin and ampicillin","volume":"4","author":"Raynor","year":"1997","journal-title":"Prim. 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