{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,18]],"date-time":"2026-09-18T17:50:35Z","timestamp":1789753835149,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":65,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,25]],"date-time":"2025-12-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1766620800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Beijing Municipal Government grant","award":["PXM2021-014226-000041"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PXM2021-014226-000041"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["82030031"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["82030031"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Innovation Research Team Project of Beijing Stomatological Hospital, Capital Medical University","award":["CXTD202201"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CXTD202201"]}]},{"name":"Chinese Research Unit of Tooth Development and Regeneration, Academy of Medical Sciences","award":["2019-12M-5-031"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2019-12M-5-031"]}]},{"name":"Beijing Municipal Government, Beijing Scholar Program","award":["PXM2021_014226_000020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PXM2021_014226_000020"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Antibiotics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Amoxicillin, clindamycin and azithromycin are the most frequently prescribed antibiotics for odontogenic infections, but their comparative effects on gut microbiota and intestinal homeostasis remain insufficiently understood. Disruption of gut microbiota, short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) production, and mucosal barrier integrity may contribute to gastrointestinal symptoms. We aimed to compare the impacts of these antibiotics on gut microbiota, SCFA levels, and colonic goblet cells. Methods: C57BL\/6N mice were treated with oral amoxicillin, clindamycin, or azithromycin at clinically relevant dosages. Cecal index, fecal water content, and diarrhea index were assessed during treatment and recovery. Gut microbiota composition and absolute bacterial abundance were determined using 16S rRNA amplicon absolute quantification sequencing. SCFAs in cecal contents were quantified by gas chromatography\u2013mass spectrometry. Goblet cell abundance and Muc2 mRNA expression in colon tissues were evaluated using Alcian blue staining and RT-PCR. Results: Amoxicillin caused moderate increases in cecal index, reduced Ligilactobacillus abundance, increased Escherichia-Shigella, lowered SCFA levels, and decreased goblet cells and Muc2 expression, with partial recovery after two weeks. Clindamycin induced more severe dysbiosis, including sustained Proteobacteria expansion, persistent loss of beneficial taxa, 86\u201390% reduction in SCFA production, and lasting decreases in goblet cells and Muc2 expression without recovery during the observation period. Azithromycin caused mild and reversible changes across all parameters. Conclusions: Among the three antibiotics, azithromycin had the least detrimental effects on gut microbiota, SCFA production, and mucosal barrier function, whereas clindamycin caused profound and persistent intestinal disruption. These findings provide comparative evidence to inform antibiotic selection in clinical practices.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics15010024","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,26]],"date-time":"2025-12-26T00:50:21Z","timestamp":1766710221000},"page":"24","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Comparative Impacts of Oral Amoxicillin, Azithromycin, and Clindamycin on Gut Microbiota and Intestinal Homeostasis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-7026-6653","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shanshan","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Stomatology, Henan University, Zhengzhou 450046, China"},{"name":"Laboratory of Oral Health and Homeostatic Medicine, School of Stomatology and Beijing Laboratory of Oral Health, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100070, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3534-9205","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jing","family":"Sun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Oral Health and Homeostatic Medicine, School of Stomatology and Beijing Laboratory of Oral Health, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100070, China"},{"name":"Central Laboratory, Jinan Key Medical and Health Laboratory of Oral Diseases and Tissue Regeneration, Jinan Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases and Tissue Regeneration, Shandong Provincial Key Medical and Health Laboratory of Oral Diseases and Tissue Regeneration, Jinan Stomatological Hospital, Jinan 250001, China"},{"name":"Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6428-2252","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yanfang","family":"Ren","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Eastman Institute for Oral Health, University of Rochester Medical Center, 625 Elmwood Ave., Rochester, NY 14620, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7572-3586","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Songlin","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Oral Health and Homeostatic Medicine, School of Stomatology and Beijing Laboratory of Oral Health, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100070, China"},{"name":"Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China"},{"name":"Laboratory of Oral Homeostatic Medicine, School of Medicine and SUSTech Homeostatic Medicine Institute (SHMI), Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1016\/j.det.2020.05.002","article-title":"Common Dental and Periodontal Diseases","volume":"38","author":"Laudenbach","year":"2020","journal-title":"Dermatol. 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