{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,1]],"date-time":"2026-08-01T19:24:10Z","timestamp":1785612250596,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":59,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,15]],"date-time":"2026-01-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1768435200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002923","name":"Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cient\u00edficas y T\u00e9cnicas","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["PUE 22920180100034C"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PUE 22920180100034C"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002923","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100009082","name":"Universidad Cat\u00f3lica de C\u00f3rdoba","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["SIV 2022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SIV 2022"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100009082","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"Agencia Nacional de Promoci\u00f3n de la Investigaci\u00f3n, el Desarrollo Tecnol\u00f3gico y la Innovaci\u00f3n","award":["PICT 2019-2019-002495"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PICT 2019-2019-002495"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Antibiotics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: The expansion of intensive swine production in C\u00f3rdoba, Argentina, underscores the need to assess the risks associated with antimicrobial (AM) use, whose extensive application has driven antimicrobial resistance, a major global threat within the One Health framework. This study aimed to characterize AM use practices and evaluate the epidemiological resistance profiles (non-wild-type phenotypes, NWT) of commensal Escherichia coli of fecal origin from swine farms, using epidemiological cut-off values (ECOFFs) as a surveillance criterion. Methods: An observational cross-sectional study was conducted in 19 farrow-to-finish farms in C\u00f3rdoba during 2023. Information on AM use (prophylaxis, metaphylaxis, treatment) across production categories was collected. A total of 437 E. coli isolates were obtained from fecal samples, and minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) were determined for 10 AMs of critical importance for human and animal health. NWT phenotypes were classified according to EUCAST ECOFFs, and multidrug resistance (MDR) was assessed. Results: AM use was frequent and predominantly prophylactic (89.5% of farms), mainly through mass medication (66.3%), with macrolides and amoxicillin being the most commonly administered AMs. NWT proportions were extremely high (90\u201392%) for ampicillin, tetracyclines, and chloramphenicol and substantial for ciprofloxacin (50.6%), sulfamethoxazole (68.2%), and trimethoprim (44.9%). Extended-spectrum \u03b2-lactamase (ESBL)-producing phenotypes were detected. Alarmingly, 92% of isolates were classified as MDR E. coli, with homogeneous distribution across production categories. Conclusions: Findings reveal intensive and largely empirical AM use that has consolidated a stable intestinal resistome in the swine population. High MDR levels, even in categories with limited direct AM exposure or involving banned compounds, suggest that co-selection and horizontal gene transfer are key drivers of resistance. This scenario highlights the urgent need to strengthen integrated surveillance and promote prudent AM use strategies under the One Health approach to preserve therapeutic efficacy.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics15010086","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,15]],"date-time":"2026-01-15T12:31:41Z","timestamp":1768480301000},"page":"86","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Antimicrobial Use and Epidemiological Resistance Profiles of Commensal Escherichia coli from Swine Farms in C\u00f3rdoba, Argentina"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8114-0579","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nicol\u00e1s Javier","family":"Litterio","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias, IRNASUS CONICET-UCC, Universidad Cat\u00f3lica de C\u00f3rdoba, Av. Armada Argentina 3555, C\u00f3rdoba X5016DHK, Argentina"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6195-7744","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mar\u00eda del Pilar","family":"Zarazaga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias, IRNASUS CONICET-UCC, Universidad Cat\u00f3lica de C\u00f3rdoba, Av. Armada Argentina 3555, C\u00f3rdoba X5016DHK, Argentina"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9799-4499","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Augusto Mat\u00edas","family":"Lorenzutti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias, IRNASUS CONICET-UCC, Universidad Cat\u00f3lica de C\u00f3rdoba, Av. Armada Argentina 3555, C\u00f3rdoba X5016DHK, Argentina"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5313-7033","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Juan Pablo","family":"Vico","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias, IRNASUS CONICET-UCC, Universidad Cat\u00f3lica de C\u00f3rdoba, Av. Armada Argentina 3555, C\u00f3rdoba X5016DHK, Argentina"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7190-1103","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mart\u00edn Alejandro","family":"Himelfarb","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias, IRNASUS CONICET-UCC, Universidad Cat\u00f3lica de C\u00f3rdoba, Av. Armada Argentina 3555, C\u00f3rdoba X5016DHK, Argentina"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4648-3752","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mariano Guillermo","family":"Tinti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias, IRNASUS CONICET-UCC, Universidad Cat\u00f3lica de C\u00f3rdoba, Av. Armada Argentina 3555, C\u00f3rdoba X5016DHK, Argentina"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9279-495X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ana Paola","family":"Zogbi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias, IRNASUS CONICET-UCC, Universidad Cat\u00f3lica de C\u00f3rdoba, Av. Armada Argentina 3555, C\u00f3rdoba X5016DHK, Argentina"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3795-5973","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sonia","family":"Rubio-Langre","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1829-6113","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Manuel Ignacio","family":"San Andr\u00e9s Larrea","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Ministerio de Agricultura, Ganader\u00eda y Pesca (2024). Anuario 2024\u2014Porcinos: Producci\u00f3n, Faena y Consumo."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Blavi, L., Sol\u00e0-Oriol, D., Llonch, P., L\u00f3pez-Verg\u00e9, S., Mart\u00edn-Or\u00fae, S.M., and P\u00e9rez, J.F. (2021). Management and Feeding Strategies in Early Life to Increase Piglet Performance and Welfare around Weaning: A Review. Animals, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani11020302"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100058","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vas.2019.100058","article-title":"Patterns of Antibiotic Use in Global Pig Production: A Systematic Review","volume":"7","author":"Lekagul","year":"2019","journal-title":"Vet. Anim. Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"World Organisation for Animal Health (2019). Chapter 6.9: Monitoring of the Quantities and Usage Patterns of Antimicrobial Agents Used in Food-Producing Animals. Terrestrial Animal Health Code, World Organisation for Animal Health."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2016). Global Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance, World Health Organization."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ARBA-0009-2017","DOI":"10.1128\/microbiolspec.ARBA-0009-2017","article-title":"Antimicrobial Resistance: A One Health Perspective","volume":"6","author":"McEwen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Microbiol. Spectr."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Collignon, P.J., and McEwen, S.A. (2019). One Health\u2014Its Importance in Helping to Better Control Antimicrobial Resistance. Trop. Med. Infect. Dis., 4.","DOI":"10.3390\/tropicalmed4010022"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"European Food Safety Authority, Aerts, M., Battisti, A., Hendriksen, R., Kempf, I., Teale, C., Tenhagen, B., Veldman, K., Wasyl, D., and Guerra, B. (2019). Technical Specifications on Harmonised Monitoring of Antimicrobial Resistance in Zoonotic and Indicator Bacteria from Food-Producing Animals and Food. EFSA J., 17, e05709.","DOI":"10.2903\/j.efsa.2019.5709"},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (2015). Performance Standards for Antimicrobial Disk and Dilution Susceptibility Tests for Bacteria Isolated from Animals, CLSI. [3rd ed.]. CLSI Supplement VET01S."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (2025, February 03). MIC and Zone Diameter Distributions and ECOFFs. Available online: https:\/\/mic.eucast.org\/search\/?search%5Bmethod%5D=mic&search%5Bantibiotic%5D=-1&search%5Bspecies%5D=261&search%5Bdisk_content%5D=-1&search%5Blimit%5D=50&page=2."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"418","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-0691.2006.01377.x","article-title":"Statistical Characterisation of Bacterial Wild-Type MIC Value Distributions and the Determination of Epidemiological Cut-off Values","volume":"12","author":"Turnidge","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dewulf, J., Joosten, P., Chantziaras, I., Bernaerdt, E., Vanderhaeghen, W., Postma, M., and Maes, D. (2022). Antibiotic Use in European Pig Production: Less Is More. Antibiotics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics11111493"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hallenberg, G.S., Jiwakanon, J., Angkititrakul, S., Kang-Air, S., Osbjer, K., Lunha, K., Sunde, M., J\u00e4rhult, J.D., Van Boeckel, T.P., and Rich, K.M. (2020). Antibiotic Use in Pig Farms at Different Levels of Intensification\u2014Farmers\u2019 Practices in Northeastern Thailand. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0243099"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Coyne, L., Benigno, C., Giang, V.N., Huong, L.Q., Kalprividh, W., Padungtod, P., Patrick, I., Ngoc, P.T., and Rushton, J. (2020). Exploring the Socioeconomic Importance of Antimicrobial Use in the Small-Scale Pig Sector in Vietnam. Antibiotics, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics9060299"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1186\/s40813-018-0106-5","article-title":"Association Between Antimicrobial Usage, Biosecurity Measures as Well as Farm Performance in German Farrow-to-Finish Farms","volume":"4","author":"Raasch","year":"2018","journal-title":"Porc. Health Manag."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2178","DOI":"10.1017\/S1751731120000828","article-title":"High Biosecurity and Welfare Standards in Fattening Pig Farms Are Associated with Reduced Antimicrobial Use","volume":"14","author":"Stygar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Animal"},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Servicio Nacional de Sanidad y Calidad Agroalimentaria (2024). Prohibici\u00f3n del Uso y Comercializaci\u00f3n de Antimicrobianos como Promotores de Crecimiento en Productos Veterinarios (Resoluci\u00f3n SENASA 445\/2024)."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"World Organisation for Animal Health (2025). Ninth Annual Report on Antimicrobial Agents Intended for Use in Animals, World Organisation for Animal Health."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, E.-B., Abbas, M.A., Park, J., Tassew, D.D., and Park, S.-C. (2023). Optimizing Tylosin Dosage for Co-Infection of Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae and Pasteurella multocida in Pigs Using Pharmacokinetic\/Pharmacodynamic Modeling. Front. Pharmacol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2023.1258403"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1186\/s13567-022-01038-9","article-title":"Influence of Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae Natural Infection on the Respiratory Microbiome Diversity of Finishing Pigs","volume":"53","author":"Sonalio","year":"2022","journal-title":"Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, Y., Ji, X., Zhang, S., Wang, W., Zhang, H., and Ding, H. (2023). Pharmacokinetic\/Pharmacodynamic Integration of Tilmicosin against Pasteurella multocida in a Piglet Tissue Cage Model. Front. Vet. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2023.1260990"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1111\/jvp.12259","article-title":"The Influence of Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae Infection on Tulathromycin Pharmacokinetics and Lung Tissue Disposition in Pigs","volume":"39","author":"Gajda","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Vet. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1186\/s40813-022-00259-w","article-title":"Antimicrobial Use in Lactating Sows, Piglets, Nursery, and Grower-Finisher Pigs on Swine Farms in Ontario, Canada during 2017 and 2018","volume":"8","author":"Bosman","year":"2022","journal-title":"Porc. Health Manag."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"645","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.100976","article-title":"Efficacy of In-Feed Medication with Chlortetracycline in a Farrow-to-Finish Herd against a Clinical Outbreak of Respiratory Disease in Fattening Pigs","volume":"171","author":"Sierens","year":"2012","journal-title":"Vet. Rec."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1093\/tas\/txy097","article-title":"Effects of Two Feeding Periods of Tiamulin Fed in Combination with Chlortetracycline for Control and Treatment of Swine Respiratory and Enteric Disease and Subsequent Growth Performance of Growing-Finishing Pigs","volume":"3","author":"Puls","year":"2019","journal-title":"Transl. Anim. Sci."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2015.06.002","article-title":"Limited Efficacy of Antimicrobial Metaphylaxis in Finishing Pigs: A Randomized Clinical Trial","volume":"121","author":"Ramirez","year":"2015","journal-title":"Prev. Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2024). WHO\u2019s List of Medically Important Antimicrobials: A Risk Management Tool for Mitigating Antimicrobial Resistance Due to Non-Human Use, World Health Organization."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2016.05.001","article-title":"Farm-Economic Analysis of Reducing Antimicrobial Use Whilst Adopting Improved Management Strategies on Farrow-to-Finish Pig Farms","volume":"129","author":"Postma","year":"2016","journal-title":"Prev. Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"World Organisation for Animal Health (2019). Chapter 6.8: Harmonisation of National Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance and Monitoring Programmes. Terrestrial Animal Health Code, World Organisation for Animal Health."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"European Food Safety Authority, and European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (2024). The European Union Summary Report on Antimicrobial Resistance in Zoonotic and Indicator Bacteria from Humans, Animals and Food in 2021\u20132022. EFSA J., 22, e8583.","DOI":"10.2903\/j.efsa.2024.8583"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0010022","DOI":"10.1128\/cmr.00100-22","article-title":"Wild-Type Distributions of Minimum Inhibitory Concentrations and Epidemiological Cut-off Values\u2014Laboratory and Clinical Utility","volume":"36","author":"Kahlmeter","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"898","DOI":"10.1038\/s41564-018-0192-9","article-title":"Abundance and Diversity of the Faecal Resistome in Slaughter Pigs and Broilers in Nine European Countries","volume":"3","author":"Munk","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Servicio Nacional de Sanidad y Calidad Agroalimentaria (1995). Prohibici\u00f3n del Uso de Cloranfenicol en Productos Alimenticios y Farmacol\u00f3gicos para Animales (Resoluci\u00f3n SENASA 253\/1995)."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"519","DOI":"10.1016\/j.femsre.2004.04.001","article-title":"Molecular Basis of Bacterial Resistance to Chloramphenicol and Florfenicol","volume":"28","author":"Schwarz","year":"2004","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, P., Zhu, T., Zhou, D., Lu, W., Liu, H., Sun, Z., Ying, J., Lu, J., Lin, X., and Li, K. (2020). Analysis of Resistance to Florfenicol and the Related Mechanism of Dissemination in Different Animal-Derived Bacteria. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2020.00369"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Puangseree, J., Prathan, R., Srisanga, S., and Chuanchuen, R. (2024). Molecular Basis of the Persistence of Chloramphenicol Resistance among Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp. from Pigs, Pork and Humans in Thailand. PLoS ONE, 19.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0304250"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1820","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dks020","article-title":"Detection of the Staphylococcal Multiresistance Gene cfr in Escherichia coli of Domestic-Animal Origin","volume":"67","author":"Wang","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00862-17","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00862-17","article-title":"Combined Effect of the Cfr Methyltransferase and Ribosomal Protein L3 Mutations on Resistance to Ribosome-Targeting Antibiotics","volume":"61","author":"Pakula","year":"2017","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"338","DOI":"10.26444\/aaem\/74718","article-title":"Resistance to the Tetracyclines and Macrolide\u2013Lincosamide\u2013Streptogramin Group of Antibiotics and Its Genetic Linkage\u2014A Review","volume":"24","author":"Marosevic","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ann. Agric. Environ. Med."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2150","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph120202150","article-title":"Antimicrobial Resistance in Commensal Escherichia coli from Pigs During Metaphylactic Trimethoprim and Sulfamethoxazole Treatment and in the Post-Exposure Period","volume":"12","author":"Mazurek","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"World Organisation for Animal Health (2025). WOAH List of Antimicrobial Agents of Veterinary Importance, World Organisation for Animal Health."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"994","DOI":"10.1089\/mdr.2016.0142","article-title":"Multiple Antimicrobial Resistance and Novel Point Mutation in Fluoroquinolone-Resistant Escherichia coli Isolates from Mangalore, India","volume":"23","author":"Santhosh","year":"2017","journal-title":"Microb. Drug Resist."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1334","DOI":"10.1089\/mdr.2020.0007","article-title":"Plasmidic Fluoroquinolone Resistance Genes in Fluoroquinolone-Resistant and\/or Extended-Spectrum Beta-Lactamase-Producing Escherichia coli Strains Isolated from Pediatric and Adult Patients Diagnosed with Urinary Tract Infection","volume":"26","author":"Akgoz","year":"2020","journal-title":"Microb. Drug Resist."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00990-20","DOI":"10.1128\/mSphere.00990-20","article-title":"Genetic Determinants of Resistance to Extended-Spectrum Cephalosporin and Fluoroquinolone in Escherichia coli Isolated from Diseased Pigs in the United States","volume":"5","author":"Hayer","year":"2020","journal-title":"mSphere"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1089\/fpd.2023.0021","article-title":"Role of Plasmids in Co-Selection of Antimicrobial Resistances among Escherichia coli Isolated from Pigs","volume":"20","author":"Ozawa","year":"2023","journal-title":"Foodborne Pathog. Dis."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, Z., Yang, H., Fu, H., Wu, L., Liu, M., Jiang, H., Liu, Q., Wang, Y., Xiong, S., and Zhou, M. (2023). Gut Bacterial Species in Late Trimester of Pregnant Sows Influence the Occurrence of Stillborn Piglet Through Pro-Inflammation Response. Front. Immunol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.1101130"},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"e067","article-title":"Aislamientos de Escherichia coli de Origen Porcino Resistentes a Antimicrobianos de Importancia Cr\u00edtica para la Salud P\u00fablica","volume":"42","author":"Vinocur","year":"2022","journal-title":"Analecta Vet."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1782","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.03916-14","article-title":"Impact of the Use of \u03b2-Lactam Antimicrobials on the Emergence of Escherichia coli Isolates Resistant to Cephalosporins Under Standard Pig-Rearing Conditions","volume":"81","author":"Moreno","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1793","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dks108","article-title":"Escherichia coli Producing VIM-1 Carbapenemase Isolated on a Pig Farm","volume":"67","author":"Fischer","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Servicio Nacional de Sanidad y Calidad Agroalimentaria (2019). Prohibici\u00f3n de Productos Veterinarios con Colistina (Resoluci\u00f3n SENASA 22\/2019)."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"349","article-title":"Colistin-Resistant Escherichia coli Mediated by the mcr-1 Gene from Pigs in Northeastern Argentina","volume":"57","author":"Pellegrini","year":"2025","journal-title":"Rev. Argent. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"794","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tim.2018.02.006","article-title":"Towards Understanding MCR-like Colistin Resistance","volume":"26","author":"Sun","year":"2018","journal-title":"Trends Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bastidas-Caldes, C., de Waard, J.H., Salgado, M.S., Villac\u00eds, M.J., Coral-Almeida, M., Yamamoto, Y., and Calvopi\u00f1a, M. (2022). Worldwide Prevalence of mcr-Mediated Colistin Resistance in Escherichia coli Isolates from Clinical Samples, Healthy Humans, and Livestock\u2014A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Pathogens, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens11060659"},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"(2005). Microbiology of Food and Animal Feeding Stuffs\u2014Horizontal Method for the Detection and Enumeration of Presumptive Escherichia coli\u2014Most Probable Number Technique (Standard No. ISO 7251:2005)."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2019). Critically Important Antimicrobials for Human Medicine, World Health Organization. [6th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"World Organisation for Animal Health (2021). OIE List of Antimicrobial Agents of Veterinary Importance, World Organisation for Animal Health."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1400","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0463.2007.00722.x","article-title":"Multiplex PCR Amplification Assay for the Detection of blaSHV, blaTEM and blaCTX-M Genes in Enterobacteriaceae","volume":"115","author":"Monstein","year":"2007","journal-title":"APMIS"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-0691.2011.03570.x","article-title":"Multidrug-Resistant, Extensively Drug-Resistant and Pandrug-Resistant Bacteria: An International Expert Proposal for Interim Standard Definitions for Acquired Resistance","volume":"18","author":"Magiorakos","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"Di Rienzo, J., Casanoves, F., Balzarini, M., Gonzalez, L., Tablada, M., and Robledo, C. (2020). InfoStat, Centro de Transferencia InfoStat, Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias, Universidad Nacional de C\u00f3rdoba."}],"container-title":["Antibiotics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6382\/15\/1\/86\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,17]],"date-time":"2026-01-17T05:43:13Z","timestamp":1768628593000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6382\/15\/1\/86"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,15]]},"references-count":59,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1]]}},"alternative-id":["antibiotics15010086"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/antibiotics15010086","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-6382"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-6382","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,15]]}}}