{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T05:30:54Z","timestamp":1790746254121,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,6]],"date-time":"2026-03-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1772755200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Belgian Directorate of Development Cooperation and Humanitarian Aid"},{"name":"SETA (Severe Typhoid in Africa) project"},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000865","name":"Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["OPP1127988"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["OPP1127988"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000865","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001713","name":"European & Developing Countries Clinical Trials Partnership","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["RIA2017S-2027"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RIA2017S-2027"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001713","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Antibiotics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Antimicrobial resistance (AMR), particularly due to extended-spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBL), is a growing threat to public health in sub-Saharan Africa. This study investigates the prevalence, epidemiological characteristics, resistance patterns and resistance dynamic over time of ESBL-producing non-typhoidal Salmonella (NTS) bacteremia in Kisantu, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), from 2019 to 2022. Methods: A retrospective observational study used routine bloodstream infection data from the AMR network at Saint Luc Hospital in Kisantu. Blood cultures from suspected bacteremia cases were processed using standard microbiological techniques. Bacterial identification relied on biochemical reactions. Antibiotic susceptibility testing and ESBL-producing NTS detection were performed by disk diffusion following Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute guidelines. Associations between ESBL production and patient characteristics (age, sex) were assessed using Pearson\u2019s Chi-square test, and annual temporal trends in ESBL-producing NTS from 2019 to 2022 were analyzed by logistic regression using 2019 as the reference year. Results: Of the 19,430 blood cultures, 1681 NTS isolates were identified, and 1568 of these were screened for ESBL. ESBL prevalence was significantly associated with age (p = 0.007), peaking in children under 2 years, but not with sex (p = 0.570). Compared with 2019, the likelihood of isolating ESBL-producing NTS increased markedly through 2022, with adjusted probabilities rising from 58% to 87%, reflecting a strong upward temporal trend. High levels of extensively drug-resistant (94.1%) were observed. No carbapenem resistance was detected. Conclusions: ESBL-producing NTS bacteremia is rising in Kisantu, DRC, mainly affecting children under 2 years. Rising resistance to key antibiotics limits treatment options and highlights the need for strengthened AMR surveillance, optimized antibiotic use, and vaccination strategies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics15030271","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,6]],"date-time":"2026-03-06T09:22:14Z","timestamp":1772788934000},"page":"271","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Epidemiology, Temporal Trends and Resistance Patterns of ESBL-Producing Non-Typhoidal Salmonella Isolated from Blood Cultures in Kisantu, DRC (2019\u20132022)"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-0012-9926","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jules","family":"Mbuyamba","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Service of Microbiology, University Teaching Hospital of Kinshasa, Kinshasa P.O. Box 127, Democratic Republic of the Congo"},{"name":"Department of Microbiology, National Institute for Biomedical Research, Kinshasa P.O. Box 1197, Democratic Republic of the Congo"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-2684-3734","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gaelle","family":"Nkoji-Tunda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, National Institute for Biomedical Research, Kinshasa P.O. Box 1197, Democratic Republic of the Congo"},{"name":"Department of Basic and Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Protestant University of Congo, Kinshasa P.O. Box 4745, Democratic Republic of the Congo"},{"name":"Pediatric Infectious Diseases Department, Institute of Tropical Medicine (Nekken), Nagasaki University, Nagasaki 852-8523, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daniel","family":"Vita","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ophthalmology Department, Saint Luc Hospital of Kisantu, Inkisi P.O. Box 221, Democratic Republic of the Congo"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Laurence","family":"Ngara","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Service of Microbiology, University Teaching Hospital of Kinshasa, Kinshasa P.O. Box 127, Democratic Republic of the Congo"},{"name":"Department of Microbiology, National Institute for Biomedical Research, Kinshasa P.O. Box 1197, Democratic Republic of the Congo"},{"name":"Service of Medical Biology, Monkole Medical Center, Kinshasa P.O. Box 817, Democratic Republic of the Congo"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Edmonde","family":"Bonebe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, National Institute for Biomedical Research, Kinshasa P.O. Box 1197, Democratic Republic of the Congo"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marie-France","family":"Phoba","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Service of Microbiology, University Teaching Hospital of Kinshasa, Kinshasa P.O. Box 127, Democratic Republic of the Congo"},{"name":"Department of Microbiology, National Institute for Biomedical Research, Kinshasa P.O. Box 1197, Democratic Republic of the Congo"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3930-3100","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anne-Sophie","family":"Heroes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Sciences, Institute of Tropical Medicine, 2000 Antwerp, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mohamadou","family":"Siribie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International Vaccine Institute, Seoul 07236, Republic of Korea"},{"name":"Burkina Institute of Global Health, Ouagadougou 10000, Burkina Faso"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4005-8605","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Birkneh","family":"Tilahun Tadesse","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International Vaccine Institute, Seoul 07236, Republic of Korea"},{"name":"Department of Global Health, Karolinska Institute, 141 86 Stockholm, Sweden"},{"name":"Center for Innovative Drug Development and Therapeutic Trials for Africa, College of Health Sciences, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa 1000, Ethiopia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Glody-Nickel","family":"Mbaa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, Ndjili Q7 General Hospital, Higher Institute of Medical Technology of Kinshasa, Kinshasa P.O. Box 190-200, Democratic Republic of the Congo"},{"name":"Service of Clinical Research, Saint Luc University Clinics, Catholic University of Louvain, 1200 Brussels, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6043-7170","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Florian","family":"Marks","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International Vaccine Institute, Seoul 07236, Republic of Korea"},{"name":"Madagascar Institute for Vaccine Research, University of Antananarivo, Antananarivo 101, Madagascar"},{"name":"Department of Medicine, Cambridge Institute of Therapeutic Immunology and Infectious Disease, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0AH, UK"},{"name":"Heidelberg Institute of Global Health, University of Heidelberg, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany"},{"name":"The Hong Kong Jockey Club Global Health Institute, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8785-5081","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Liselotte","family":"Hardy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Sciences, Institute of Tropical Medicine, 2000 Antwerp, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jan","family":"Jacobs","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Sciences, Institute of Tropical Medicine, 2000 Antwerp, Belgium"},{"name":"Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5092-8689","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lisette","family":"Mbuyi-Kalonji","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Service of Microbiology, University Teaching Hospital of Kinshasa, Kinshasa P.O. Box 127, Democratic Republic of the Congo"},{"name":"Department of Microbiology, National Institute for Biomedical Research, Kinshasa P.O. Box 1197, Democratic Republic of the Congo"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Octavie","family":"Lunguya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Service of Microbiology, University Teaching Hospital of Kinshasa, Kinshasa P.O. Box 127, Democratic Republic of the Congo"},{"name":"Department of Microbiology, National Institute for Biomedical Research, Kinshasa P.O. Box 1197, Democratic Republic of the Congo"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2015). Global Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance System: Manual for Early Implementation, World Health Organization."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"(2025, July 05). 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