{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T17:52:36Z","timestamp":1790790756818,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":51,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,6]],"date-time":"2026-04-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1775433600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Science Committee of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Republic of Kazakhstan","award":["AP26197781"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["AP26197781"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Antibiotics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: Implant-associated infections remain among the most severe and clinically challenging complications in contemporary orthopedics, largely due to the formation of persistent bacterial biofilms and the limited penetration of systemically administered antibiotics into the tissue\u2013implant interface. In this context, local antibacterial functionalization of implantable materials represents a promising strategy for the prevention of early infectious complications. The objective of this study was to develop and comparatively evaluate the antimicrobial performance of PLA-based composites loaded with antibiotics from different pharmacological classes, with a view toward their potential application in individualized 3D-printed implants. Methods: Polylactic acid (PLA)-based composites incorporating gentamicin, ciprofloxacin, doxycycline, and vancomycin were fabricated using thermal processing under conditions compatible with extrusion and fused filament fabrication. Physicochemical characterization (FTIR, TGA, SEM) was performed to assess the structure and morphology of the composites, and in vitro antibiotic release studies were conducted. Antimicrobial activity was evaluated using an agar diffusion assay against ATCC reference strains and clinical isolates of methicillin-susceptible and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA and MRSA), Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (n = 10 per species). The antibacterial performance of the composites was evaluated in comparison with standard commercial antibiotic disks used as qualitative reference controls. Results: Antibiotic-loaded PLA composites exhibited consistent and reproducible antibacterial activity, markedly exceeding that of neat PLA. The broadest activity spectrum was observed for PLA\u2013ciprofloxacin (\u224829\u201336 mm) and PLA\u2013gentamicin (\u224825\u201327 mm), which effectively inhibited both Gram-positive and Gram-negative clinical isolates, including MRSA and P. aeruginosa. PLA\u2013vancomycin retained selective activity against staphylococci (\u224814\u201315 mm), whereas PLA\u2013doxycycline demonstrated limited efficacy against Gram-negative pathogens. Physicochemical analysis confirmed successful incorporation of antibiotics without detectable degradation of the polymer structure, while release studies demonstrated sustained antibiotic release from the composite materials. Importantly, the expected pharmacological activity profiles of the antibiotics were preserved after incorporation into the polymer matrix and subsequent high-temperature processing. Conclusions: The results demonstrate the feasibility of integrating clinically relevant antibiotics into a thermoplastic PLA matrix while preserving their selective antimicrobial activity following processing compatible with extrusion and additive manufacturing. The proposed PLA-based composites can be regarded as elements of a pharmacologically tunable antibacterial platform, offering a rationale for the development of context-dependent, biodegradable, 3D-printed implants for the local prevention of implant-associated infections in the setting of increasing antimicrobial resistance.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics15040373","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,6]],"date-time":"2026-04-06T08:58:48Z","timestamp":1775465928000},"page":"373","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Antibiotic-Loaded PLA Composites for Local Prevention of Implant-Associated Infections: Comparative Evaluation Against Reference Strains and Clinical Isolates"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2214-0165","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anastassiya","family":"Khrustaleva","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Pharmacy, Karaganda Medical University, Gogol Street 40, Karaganda 100008, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3047-8200","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Azamat","family":"Yedrissov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Pharmacy, Karaganda Medical University, Gogol Street 40, Karaganda 100008, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3202-1044","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dmitriy","family":"Khrustalev","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Pharmacy, Karaganda Medical University, Gogol Street 40, Karaganda 100008, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6592-228X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Irina","family":"Losseva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Pharmacy, Karaganda Medical University, Gogol Street 40, Karaganda 100008, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9436-8778","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alyona","family":"Lavrinenko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Scientific Research Laboratory, Karaganda Medical University, Gogol Street 40, Karaganda 100008, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-2472-8235","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Artyom","family":"Savelyev","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Pharmacy, Karaganda Medical University, Gogol Street 40, Karaganda 100008, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-6198-3167","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vladimir","family":"Kazantsev","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Pharmacy, Karaganda Medical University, Gogol Street 40, Karaganda 100008, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-1869-859X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marlen","family":"Kiikbayev","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Pharmacy, Karaganda Medical University, Gogol Street 40, Karaganda 100008, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-8379-5012","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Polina","family":"Rusyaeva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Pharmacy, Karaganda Medical University, Gogol Street 40, Karaganda 100008, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-6694-1608","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kristina","family":"Perepelitsyna","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Pharmacy, Karaganda Medical University, Gogol Street 40, Karaganda 100008, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aigerim","family":"Donenbaeva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Scientific Research Laboratory, Karaganda Medical University, Gogol Street 40, Karaganda 100008, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lourtet-Hasco\u00ebt, J., Bonnet, E., Spera, A.M., Ascione, T., Chan, M., Esposito, S., Pagliano, P., Scobie, A., \u00dcnal, S., and Giordano, G. 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