{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,2]],"date-time":"2026-05-02T15:50:08Z","timestamp":1777737008713,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":34,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1777420800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Centre International de Recherches M\u00e9dicales de Franceville (CIRMF), Gabon"},{"name":"Gabonese Government and Total-Fina-Elf Gabon"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Antibiotics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a global threat to human, animal, and environmental health. Among bacteria, E. coli is frequently used as a key indicator of AMR. Despite their genetic proximity to humans, studies on AMR in Non-Human Primates (NHPs) remain limited, particularly in semi-anthropized environments. This study aims to characterize the antibiotic resistance profiles and phylo-groups of E. coli isolated from NHPs and humans at a primatology center. Methods: A total of 143 stool samples were collected, including 125 from NHPs and 18 from humans. Isolates were cultured on Eosin Methylene Blue agar and then identified by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. Antibiotic susceptibility was assessed using the Kirby\u2013Bauer disk diffusion method, with 30 antibiotics following CASFM-EUCAST recommendations. E. coli phylo-groups were characterized by quadruplex PCR according to the Clermont method, targeting the genes. Results: A total of 122 E. coli isolates (85.31%) were recovered, with comparable prevalence observed across NHPs and human staff. More than half of the isolates (55.74%) were resistant to at least one antibiotic tested, and 12.3% were classified as multi-drug resistant (MDR). Resistance rates of isolates in Mandrillus sphinx, Pan troglodytes, and humans were 50.6%, 57.7%, and 80.0%, respectively, with no significant statistical difference (p = 0.11). A single Extended-Spectrum Beta-Lactamase (ESBL) producing isolate was identified in the mandrill. Phylo-group analysis revealed the dominance of group A (50%), followed by groups B1, D, and C. Conclusions: Resistance profiles and phylo-group distribution among NHPs could suggest bacterial exchange and potential for cross-transmission of AMR within the shared environment.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics15050446","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T10:34:42Z","timestamp":1777458882000},"page":"446","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Antimicrobial Resistance and Phylo-Groups of Escherichia coli at the Human\u2013Primate Interface in Gabon: A One Health Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Marie-louise","family":"Mawili Mounguengui","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Bacteriology Laboratory, Franceville Interdisciplinary Medical Research Center, Franceville P.O. Box 769, Gabon"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0461-4670","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Richard","family":"Onanga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bacteriology Laboratory, Franceville Interdisciplinary Medical Research Center, Franceville P.O. Box 769, Gabon"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9065-0995","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anicet-Clotaire","family":"Dikoumba","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bacteriology Laboratory, Franceville Interdisciplinary Medical Research Center, Franceville P.O. Box 769, Gabon"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-7841-4256","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yann","family":"Mouanga-Ndzime","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bacteriology Laboratory, Franceville Interdisciplinary Medical Research Center, Franceville P.O. Box 769, Gabon"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-6653-3828","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gabriel","family":"Falque","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Viral Disease Emergencies Unit, Franceville Interdisciplinary Medical Research Center, Franceville P.O. Box 769, Gabon"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Aicha","family":"Mohamed Ali","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Peltier General Hospital, Djibouti 2073, Djibouti"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"L\u00e9once F.","family":"Ondjiangui","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bacteriology Laboratory, Franceville Interdisciplinary Medical Research Center, Franceville P.O. Box 769, Gabon"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Leresche E. D. Oyaba","family":"Yinda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Masuku University of Science and Technology, Franceville P.O. Box 901, Gabon"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ivan","family":"Mfouo-Tynga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Retroviral Infections and Associated Diseases Unit, Franceville Interdisciplinary Medical Research Center (CIRMF), Franceville P.O. Box 769, Gabon"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Linaa Y.","family":"Okomo Nguema","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bacteriology Laboratory, Franceville Interdisciplinary Medical Research Center, Franceville P.O. Box 769, Gabon"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-0377-3035","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jean","family":"Nzue Nguema","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Primatology Center, Franceville Interdisciplinary Medical Research Center, Franceville P.O. Box 769, Gabon"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Thierry A. G.","family":"Tsoumbou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Primatology Center, Franceville Interdisciplinary Medical Research Center, Franceville P.O. Box 769, Gabon"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7401-5067","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Serge E.","family":"Dibakou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Primatology Center, Franceville Interdisciplinary Medical Research Center, Franceville P.O. Box 769, Gabon"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7526-5861","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"D\u00e9sir\u00e9","family":"Otsaghe Ekore","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bacteriology Laboratory, Franceville Interdisciplinary Medical Research Center, Franceville P.O. Box 769, Gabon"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0868-3868","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Barth\u00e9l\u00e9my","family":"Ngoubangoye","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bacteriology Laboratory, Franceville Interdisciplinary Medical Research Center, Franceville P.O. Box 769, Gabon"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3436-0082","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sylvain","family":"Godreuil","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hematology Department, Saint-\u00c9loi University Hospital, University of Montpellier, 34090 Montpellier, France"},{"name":"Microbiology Department, Lapeyronie University Hospital, University of Montpellier, 34295 Montpellier, France"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1600946","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.1600946","article-title":"Impending extinction crisis of the world\u2019s primates: Why primates matter","volume":"3","author":"Estrada","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wasyl, D., Hoszowski, A., Zaj\u0105c, M., and Szulowski, K. (2013). Antimicrobial resistance in commensal Escherichia coli isolated from animals at slaughter. Front. Microbiol., 4.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2013.00221"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00777-17","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.00777-17","article-title":"An in vitro chicken gut model demonstrates transfer of a multidrug resistance plasmid from Salmonella to commensal Escherichia coli","volume":"8","author":"Card","year":"2017","journal-title":"mBio"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ARBA-0026-2017","DOI":"10.1128\/microbiolspec.ARBA-0026-2017","article-title":"Antimicrobial Resistance in Escherichia coli","volume":"6","author":"Poirel","year":"2018","journal-title":"Microbiol. Spectr."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ramiro, R.S., Dur\u00e3o, P., Bank, C., and Gordo, I. (2020). Low mutational load and high mutation rate variation in gut commensal bacteria. PLoS Biol., 18.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pbio.3000617"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Waller, M. (2016). Conservation Medicine: A Solution-Based Approach for Saving Nonhuman Primates. Ethnoprimatology, Springer. Developments in Primatology: Progress and Prospects."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"44","article-title":"Antibiotic resistant Escherichia coli in feacal of captive baboons not normally exposed to antibiotic","volume":"3","author":"Mureithi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pharmacologyonline"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1600","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1523-1739.2008.01018.x","article-title":"Gastrointestinal bacterial transmission among humans, mountain gorillas, and livestock in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda","volume":"22","author":"Rwego","year":"2008","journal-title":"Conserv. Biol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocon.2006.10.048","article-title":"Patterns of gastrointestinal bacterial exchange between chimpanzees and humans involved in research and tourism in western Uganda","volume":"135","author":"Goldberg","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biol. Conserv."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01632-18","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.01632-18","article-title":"Antibiotic-resistant Escherichia coli and class 1 integrons in humans, domestic animals, and wild primates in rural Uganda","volume":"84","author":"Weiss","year":"2018","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"e000428","article-title":"Genomic diversity of Escherichia coli isolates from non-human primates in the Gambia","volume":"6","author":"Alikhan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Microb. Genom."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yinda, L.E.D.O., Onanga, R., Nguema, P.P.M., Akomo-Okoue, E.F., Akoue, G.N., Pendy, N.M.L., Ekore, D.O., Lendamba, R.W., Mabika-Mabika, A., and Mbeang, J.C.O. (2022). Phylogenetic groups, Pathotypes and antimicrobial resistance of Escherichia coli isolated from Western lowland Gorilla Faeces (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) of Moukalaba-Doudou National Park (MDNP). Pathogens, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens11101082"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ngoubangoye, B., Fouchet, D., Boundenga, L.A., Cassan, C., Arnathau, C., Meugnier, H., Tsoumbou, T.-A., Dibakou, S.E., Ekore, D.O., and Nguema, Y.O. (2023). Staphylococcus aureus Host Spectrum Correlates with Methicillin Resistance in a Multi-Species Ecosystem. Microorganisms, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms11020393"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1072","DOI":"10.1111\/1469-0691.12119","article-title":"Human-associated Staphylococcus aureus strains within great ape populations in Central Africa (Gabon)","volume":"19","author":"Nagel","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4281","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.07593-11","article-title":"No evidence for transmission of antibiotic-resistant Escherichia coli strains from humans to wild western lowland gorillas in Lop\u00e9 National Park, Gabon","volume":"78","author":"Benavides","year":"2012","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Albrechtova, K., Papousek, I., De Nys, H., Pauly, M., Anoh, E., Mossoun, A., Dolejska, M., Masarikova, M., Metzger, S., and Couacy-Hymann, E. (2014). Low rates of antimicrobial-resistant Enterobacteriaceae in wildlife in Ta\u00ef National Park, C\u00f4te d\u2019Ivoire, surrounded by villages with high prevalence of multiresistant ESBL-producing Escherichia coli in people and domestic animals. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0113548"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101101","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijppaw.2025.101101","article-title":"Eco-epidemiology of gastrointestinal parasitic infections in captive chimpanzees in Gabon","volume":"27","author":"Dibakou","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol. Parasites Wildl."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Clayton, J.B., Danzeisen, J.L., Trent, A.M., Murphy, T., and Johnson, T.J. (2014). Longitudinal characterization of Escherichia coli in healthy captive non-human primates. Front. Veter-Sci., 1.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2014.00024"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149268","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2021.149268","article-title":"Prevalence and characterization of antibiotic resistance genes and integrons in Escherichia coli isolates from captive non-human primates of 13 zoos in China","volume":"798","author":"Zhu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Total. Environ."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"ASLM, and Africa CDC (2022). Mapping AMR & AMU Partnership (MAAP): Situation Nationale de la R\u00e9sistance aux Antimi-Crobiens et Analyse de la Consommation de 2016 \u00e0 2018\u2014Rapport Gabon, African Society for Laboratory Medicine."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e10573","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2022.e10573","article-title":"Antibiotic susceptibility among non-clinical Escherichia coli as a marker of antibiotic pressure in Peru (2009\u20132019): One health approach","volume":"8","author":"Castillo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"585","article-title":"Epidemiology of Community Origin Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae Uropathogenic Strains Resistant to Antibiotics in Franceville, Gabon","volume":"11","author":"Onanga","year":"2021","journal-title":"Infect. Drug Resist."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-0691.2011.03570.x","article-title":"Multidrug-resistant, extensively drug-resistant and pandrug-resistant bacteria: An international expert proposal for interim standard definitions for acquired resistance","volume":"18","author":"Magiorakos","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00608-08","article-title":"Role of the Ser-287-Asn replacement in the hydrolysis spectrum extension of AmpC \u03b2-lactamases in Escherichia coli","volume":"53","author":"Mammeri","year":"2009","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Walk, S. (2015). The \u201ccryptic\u201d Escherichia. EcoSal Plus, 6.","DOI":"10.1128\/ecosalplus.esp-0002-2015"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0015822","DOI":"10.1128\/msystems.00158-22","article-title":"Urban wildlife crisis: Australian silver gull is a bystander host to widespread clinical antibiotic resistance","volume":"7","author":"Wyrsch","year":"2022","journal-title":"mSystems"},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"143","article-title":"Phylogenetic analysis of Escherichia coli strains isolated from human samples","volume":"2","author":"Derakhshandeh","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12741","DOI":"10.1111\/jmp.12741","article-title":"Assessment of the Risks of Zoonotic Infection at the Primatology Centre of the Interdisciplinary Medical Research Centre of Franceville in Gabon","volume":"53","author":"Jean","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Med. Primatol."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Lal, A., and Cheeptham, N. (2026, March 03). Eosin-Methylene Blue Agar Plates Protocol. American Society for Microbiology. 2016. Published online 30 September 2007. Updated 2016, pp. 1\u20137. Available online: https:\/\/asm.org\/Protocols\/Eosin-Methylene-Blue-Agar-Plates-Protocol."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"289","article-title":"Performance of a matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time-of-flight mass spectrometry system for the identification of bacterial isolates in the clinical routine laboratory","volume":"55","author":"Eigner","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Lab"},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"CASFM (2023). Comit\u00e9 de l\u2019Antibiogramme de la Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 Fran\u00e7aise, CASFM. Available online: https:\/\/www.sfm-microbiologie.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/06\/CASFM2023_V1.0.pdf."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"490","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkp498","article-title":"Development of a set of multiplex PCR assays for the detection of genes encoding important \u03b2-lactamases in Enterobacteriaceae","volume":"65","author":"Dallenne","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mimet.2013.07.015","article-title":"Comparison of direct boiling method with commercial kits for extracting fecal microbiome DNA by Illumina sequencing of 16S rRNA tags","volume":"95","author":"Peng","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Microbiol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1111\/1758-2229.12019","article-title":"The C lermont E scherichia coli phylo-typing method revisited: Improvement of specificity and detection of new phylo-groups","volume":"5","author":"Clermont","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Microbiol. Rep."}],"container-title":["Antibiotics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6382\/15\/5\/446\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T11:17:59Z","timestamp":1777461479000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6382\/15\/5\/446"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]]},"references-count":34,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5]]}},"alternative-id":["antibiotics15050446"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/antibiotics15050446","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-6382"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-6382","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]]}}}