{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,20]],"date-time":"2026-08-20T15:40:49Z","timestamp":1787240449062,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":137,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,30]],"date-time":"2026-04-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1777507200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Centre of Excellence in Agri-Food Systems and Nutrition","award":["500003545"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["500003545"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Antibiotics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: High infectious disease burden and uncontrolled antibiotic usage across human, animal, and environmental contaminants make antimicrobial resistance (AMR) a growing public health problem in Africa. Mobile genetic elements (MGEs) such plasmids, transposons, integrons, conjugative elements, and phages help spread AMR via horizontal gene transfer (HGT) across human, animal, food, and environmental sources. Despite growing evidence for antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs), Africa lacks a one-health-focused synthesis of mobile genetic element-mediated AMR. Objective: This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to consolidate information on MGEs and ARGs in AMR dissemination throughout Africa\u2019s one health interface. Methods: The literature was searched using PubMed, Scopus, and ScienceDirect. Observational. molecular epidemiology, whole genome sequencing (WGS), and metagenomic investigations of MGE-associated AMR in Africa were eligible. The study selection, data extraction, and quality assessment were performed by two independent reviewer and quality was graded using ROBVIS 2 utilizing Rayyan software. Narrative synthesis, random-effect meta-analysis, subgroup analysis, and meta-regression were utilized. Results: A total of 109 studies were included, with 91 studies contributing to the meta-analysis. MGEs reported were plasmids (71.7%) and integrons (54.8%). ARGs carried by MGEs were blaCTMX-M-15 (78.6%), Sul2 (69.6%), blaTEM (59.1%), and tetA (49.9%). Horizontal gene transfer was seen in 259 instances; however, transmission was unclear. In 442 observations, transmission pathways across human, animal, and environmental interfaces showed AMR prevalence of 75.1% in human, 98.0% in human\u2013animal, and 61.3% in one health interface. Whole-genome sequencing was the most frequently used method for detecting MGEsThe pooled pathogen and AMR prevalence rates were 73.3% (95% CI: 60.5\u201383.7%) and 94% (95% CI: 85\u201398%), with significant heterogeneity (I2 = 97.8% and 97.4%, respectively). The prevalence of Escherichia coli was 93% and Salmonella enterica 85% in subgroup analysis. Fluoroquinolones, aminoglycosides, and beta-lactams were prevalent in humans (89.7%) and human\u2013animal interactions (98.0%) according to AMR Class. Conclusions: Horizontal gene transfer has propagated MGE-mediated antimicrobial resistance across human, animal, and environmental interfaces in Africa. To combat AMR in Africa, coordinated, genomics-informed One Health surveillance and antibiotic stewardship are needed. Due to variability and publication bias, these data should be considered cautiously. Pooled data may only show descriptive patterns, and not necessarily precise continent-wide prevalence estimates.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics15050456","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,30]],"date-time":"2026-04-30T14:35:53Z","timestamp":1777559753000},"page":"456","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Mobile Genetic Elements Associated with Antimicrobial Resistance Across One Health Interfaces in Africa: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3591-3582","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kedir A.","family":"Hassen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Bioscience and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary (FAVET), Eduardo Mondlane University (UEM), Maputo 1102, Mozambique"},{"name":"Centre of Excellence in Agri-Food Systems and Nutrition (CE-AFSN), Eduardo Mondlane University (UEM), Maputo 1102, Mozambique"},{"name":"College of Veterinary Medicine, Haramaya University, Dire Dawa P.O. Box 138, Ethiopia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9038-5922","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jose","family":"Fafetine","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Bioscience and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary (FAVET), Eduardo Mondlane University (UEM), Maputo 1102, Mozambique"},{"name":"Centre of Excellence in Agri-Food Systems and Nutrition (CE-AFSN), Eduardo Mondlane University (UEM), Maputo 1102, Mozambique"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5255-2120","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Laurinda","family":"Augusto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Bioscience and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary (FAVET), Eduardo Mondlane University (UEM), Maputo 1102, Mozambique"},{"name":"Centre of Excellence in Agri-Food Systems and Nutrition (CE-AFSN), Eduardo Mondlane University (UEM), Maputo 1102, Mozambique"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1078-2187","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Inacio","family":"Mandomando","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o em Sa\u00fade de Manhi\u00e7a (CISM), Maputo 1929, Mozambique"},{"name":"Global Health and Tropical Medicine\u2014GHTM, Associate Laboratory in Translation and Innovation Towards Global Health\u2014LA-REAL, Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical\u2014IHMT, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa\u2014UNL, 2829-516 Lisbon, Portugal"},{"name":"Instituto Nacional de Sa\u00fade (INS), Maputo 1008, Mozambique"},{"name":"Barcelona Institute for Global Health (ISGlobal), Carrer Rossell\u00f3 132E, 08036 Barcelona, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8619-8761","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marcelino","family":"Garrine","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o em Sa\u00fade de Manhi\u00e7a (CISM), Maputo 1929, Mozambique"},{"name":"Global Health and Tropical Medicine\u2014GHTM, Associate Laboratory in Translation and Innovation Towards Global Health\u2014LA-REAL, Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical\u2014IHMT, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa\u2014UNL, 2829-516 Lisbon, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rogerio","family":"Marcos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre of Excellence in Agri-Food Systems and Nutrition (CE-AFSN), Eduardo Mondlane University (UEM), Maputo 1102, Mozambique"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7828-6238","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gudeta W.","family":"Sileshi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Plant Biology and Biodiversity Management, College of Natural and Computational Sciences, Addis Ababa University (AAU), Addis Ababa P.O. Box 3434, Ethiopia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1087","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciw475","article-title":"World Health Organization Ranking of Antimicrobials According to Their Importance in Human Medicine: A Critical Step for Developing Risk Management Strategies to Control Antimicrobial Resistance from Food Animal Production","volume":"Volume 63","author":"Collignon","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proceedings of the Clinical Infectious Diseases"},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"743","article-title":"Antimicrobial Resistance: One Health Approach","volume":"15","year":"2022","journal-title":"Vet. World"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"(2020). OIE Standard, Guidelines and Resolution on Antimicrobial Resistance and the Use of Antimicrobial Agents, OIE."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"a485","DOI":"10.4081\/jphia.2022.2000","article-title":"National Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance: An Evaluation of Implementation in the World Health Organization Africa Region","volume":"13","author":"Fuller","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Public Health Afr."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"WHO (2019). Monitoring and Evaluation of the Global Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance, WHO."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100850","DOI":"10.1016\/S2666-5247(24)00065-X","article-title":"Implementation of the WHO Tricycle Protocol for Surveillance of Extended-Spectrum \u03b2-Lactamase Producing Escherichia coli in Humans, Chickens, and the Environment in Madagascar: A Prospective Genomic Epidemiology Study","volume":"5","author":"Milenkov","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet Microbe"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hassen, K.A., Fafetine, J., Augusto, L., Mandomando, I., Garrine, M., and Sileshi, G.W. (2026). Antimicrobial Resistance in Selected Foodborne Pathogens in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Antibiotics, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics15010087"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.7196\/SAMJ.9644","article-title":"The World Health Organization Global Action Plan for Antimicrobial Resistance","volume":"105","author":"Mendelson","year":"2015","journal-title":"S. Afr. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"FAO, WHO, and WOAH (2024). Implementing National Bridging Workshop Roadmaps for One Health Collaboration Successes and Challenges from 17 Countries, WHO."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Agga, G.E., and Amenu, K. (2024). Editorial: Antimicrobial Resistance in Food-Producing Environments: A One Health Approach. Front. Antibiot., 3.","DOI":"10.3389\/frabi.2024.1436987"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3155","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gkac163","article-title":"Landscape of Mobile Genetic Elements and Their Antibiotic Resistance Cargo in Prokaryotic Genomes","volume":"50","author":"Khedkar","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1093\/emph\/eov018","article-title":"Horizontal Gene Transfer","volume":"2015","author":"Burmeister","year":"2015","journal-title":"Evol. Med. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00088-17","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00088-17","article-title":"Mobile Genetic Elements Associated with Antimicrobial Resistance","volume":"31","author":"Partridge","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Medugu, N., Aworh, M.K., Iregbu, K., Nwajiobi-Princewill, P., Hull, D.M., Harden, L., Singh, P., Obaro, S., Egwuenu, A., and Adeboye, F. (2025). Whole Genome Sequencing Reveals Virulence\u2013Mobile Element Linkages and Phylogenetic Diversity in Multidrug-Resistant Escherichia coli from Nigeria. Front. Microbiol., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2025.1579175"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"601","DOI":"10.1038\/nrg3226","article-title":"Transforming Clinical Microbiology with Bacterial Genome Sequencing","volume":"13","author":"Didelot","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Genet."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"744","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00023-13","article-title":"Trends in Human Fecal Carriage of Extended-Spectrum \u03b2-Lactamases in the Community: Toward the Globalization of CTX-M","volume":"26","author":"Woerther","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"ASLM, Africa CDC, ECSA-HC, and WAHO (2024). Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance Guidance for the African Region, ASLM. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Africa Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (2019). Antimicrobial Resistance Control\u2014Africa CDC, Africa Centres for Disease Control and Prevention."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"WHO (2015). Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data Global Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance, WHO."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1186\/s13756-024-01472-8","article-title":"Enhancing Clinical Microbiology for Genomic Surveillance of Antimicrobial Resistance Implementation in Africa","volume":"13","author":"Kajumbula","year":"2024","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Resist. Infect. Control"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"n71","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.n71","article-title":"The PRISMA 2020 Statement: An Updated Guideline for Reporting Systematic Reviews","volume":"372","author":"Page","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"629","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(21)02724-0","article-title":"Global Burden of Bacterial Antimicrobial Resistance in 2019: A Systematic Analysis","volume":"399","author":"Murray","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2145","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkx146","article-title":"Global Epidemiology of CTX-M \u03b2-Lactamases: Temporal and Geographical Shifts in Genotype","volume":"72","author":"Bevan","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00047-19","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00047-19","article-title":"Epidemiology of \u03b2-Lactamase-Producing Pathogens","volume":"33","author":"Bush","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5649","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1503141112","article-title":"Global Trends in Antimicrobial Use in Food Animals","volume":"112","author":"Brower","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro3439","article-title":"Tackling Antibiotic Resistance: The Environmental Framework","volume":"13","author":"Berendonk","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(15)00473-0","article-title":"Understanding the Mechanisms and Drivers of Antimicrobial Resistance","volume":"387","author":"Holmes","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"978","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tim.2018.06.007","article-title":"Evolution of Plasmid-Mediated Antibiotic Resistance in the Clinical Context","volume":"26","year":"2018","journal-title":"Trends Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"VMBF-0016-2015","DOI":"10.1128\/microbiolspec.VMBF-0016-2015","article-title":"Mechanisms of Antibiotic Resistance","volume":"4","author":"Munita","year":"2016","journal-title":"Microbiol. Spectr."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drup.2010.08.003","article-title":"Aminoglycoside Modifying Enzymes","volume":"13","author":"Ramirez","year":"2010","journal-title":"Drug Resist. Updates"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20140083","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2014.0083","article-title":"Antimicrobial Resistance in Humans, Livestock and the Wider Environment","volume":"370","author":"Woolhouse","year":"2015","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1093\/trstmh\/trw048","article-title":"Antibiotic Resistance Is the Quintessential One Health Issue","volume":"110","author":"Robinson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S18","DOI":"10.1002\/jobm.200900325","article-title":"Antimicrobial Resistance, Integrons and Plasmid Replicon Typing in Multiresistant Clinical Escherichia coli Strains from Enugu State, Nigeria","volume":"50","author":"Chah","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Basic. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60945","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-022-20254-6","article-title":"Prevalence of Integrons in Multidrug-Resistant Escherichia coli Isolates from Waters and Vegetables in Nsukka and Enugu, Southeast Nigeria","volume":"29","author":"Chigor","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1089\/fpd.2015.2097","article-title":"Characterization of Virulence-Associated Genes, Antimicrobial Resistance Genes, and Class 1 Integrons in Salmonella enterica Serovar Typhimurium Isolates from Chicken Meat and Humans in Egypt","volume":"13","author":"Ahmed","year":"2016","journal-title":"Foodborne Pathog. Dis."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1186\/s13756-020-00786-7","article-title":"Genetic Diversity and Risk Factors for the Transmission of Antimicrobial Resistance across Human, Animals and Environmental Compartments in East Africa: A Review","volume":"9","author":"Katale","year":"2020","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Resist. Infect. Control"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2016","DOI":"10.14202\/vetworld.2023.2016-2028","article-title":"Prevalence, Antibiotic Resistance, and Virulence Gene Profile of Escherichia coli Strains Shared between Food and Other Sources in Africa: A Systematic Review","volume":"16","author":"Hounkpe","year":"2023","journal-title":"Vet. World"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Montso, P.K., Mlambo, V., and Ateba, C.N. (2019). The First Isolation and Molecular Characterization of Shiga Toxin-Producing Virulent Multi-Drug Resistant Atypical Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli O177 Serogroup from South African Cattle. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2019.00333"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saraiva, M.d.M.S., Benevides, V.P., de Silva, N.M.V., Varani, A.d.M., de Freitas Neto, O.C., Berchieri, \u00c2., Delgado-Su\u00e1rez, E.J., Rocha, A.D.d.L., Eguale, T., and Munyalo, J.A. (2022). Genomic and Evolutionary Analysis of Salmonella enterica Serovar Kentucky Sequence Type 198 Isolated from Livestock in East Africa. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2022.772829"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijmm.2013.02.001","article-title":"Plasmids and the Spread of Resistance","volume":"303","author":"Carattoli","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Nathaniel Ejikeme Onyenwe, B.B. (2016). Molecular Characterisation of some Multi-Drug Resistant Salmonella enterica of Human Origin in Southeast Nigeria. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Ibadan]."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36526","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-15465-z","article-title":"Plasmid-Mediated Quinolone Resistance among Extended-Spectrum \u03b2-Lactamase-Producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella Pneumoniae Isolated from Hospitalized Patients, Hospital Environment and Wastewaters in Cameroon","volume":"15","author":"Koudoum","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16457","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-52859-2","article-title":"The Resistome, Mobilome, Virulome and Phylogenomics of Multidrug-Resistant Escherichia coli Clinical Isolates from Pretoria, South Africa","volume":"9","author":"Mbelle","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14649","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-71207-3","article-title":"Impact of DNA Extraction on Whole Genome Sequencing Analysis for Characterization and Relatedness of Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli Isolates","volume":"10","author":"Nouws","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mugo, M., Musyoki, A., Makumi, A., Mutai, I., Kering, K., Muturi, P., Kebenei, C., Weber, K., Pietsch, M., and Pilz, T. (2025). Isolation and Characterization of Bacteriophages with Lytic Activity against Multidrug-Resistant Non-Typhoidal Salmonella from Nairobi City County, Kenya. BMC Infect. Dis., 25.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-025-11325-3"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Salem, M., Al-Khalidi, A.A.H., Hammad, E., Younis, G., and Awad, A. (2025). Isolation and Characterization of Salmonella enterica Serovars from Poultry in Egypt: A Comprehensive Genetic Analysis of ESBLs, MCR, Integron and Other Resistance Genes. BMC Vet. Res., 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-025-05121-z"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1186\/s12864-024-10110-x","article-title":"Genome Mining of Escherichia coli WG5D from Drinking Water Source: Unraveling Antibiotic Resistance Genes, Virulence Factors, and Pathogenicity","volume":"25","author":"Olanrewaju","year":"2024","journal-title":"BMC Genom."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Akinyemi, K.O., Fakorede, C.O., Linde, J., Methner, U., Wareth, G., Tomaso, H., and Neubauer, H. (2023). Whole Genome Sequencing of Salmonella enterica Serovars Isolated from Humans, Animals, and the Environment in Lagos, Nigeria. BMC Microbiol., 23.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12866-023-02901-1"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Touglo, K., Djeri, B., Sina, H., Boya, B., Ayadokoun, G.G., Baba-Moussa, L., and Ameyapoh, Y. (2025). First Detection of Resistance Genes and Virulence Factors in Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp in Togo: The Case of Imported Chicken and Frozen by-Products. BMC Microbiol., 25.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12866-025-04076-3"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e398","DOI":"10.1016\/S2542-5196(18)30186-4","article-title":"Anthropological and Socioeconomic Factors Contributing to Global Antimicrobial Resistance: A Univariate and Multivariable Analysis","volume":"2","author":"Collignon","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet Planet. Health"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e02084-20","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.02084-20","article-title":"Coproduction of Tet(X7) Conferring High-Level Tigecycline Resistance, Fosfomycin FosA4, and Colistin Mcr-1.1 in Escherichia coli Strains from Chickens in Egypt","volume":"65","author":"Soliman","year":"2021","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26867","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-76466-y","article-title":"Profiling the Bacterial Microbiome Diversity and Assessing the Potential to Detect Antimicrobial Resistance Bacteria in Wastewater in Kimberley, South Africa","volume":"14","author":"Stewart","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fadare, F.T., and Okoh, A.I. (2021). Distribution and Molecular Characterization of ESBL, PAmpC \u03b2-Lactamases, and Non-\u03b2-Lactam Encoding Genes in Enterobacteriaceae Isolated from Hospital Wastewater in Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0254753"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1089\/mdr.2012.0264","article-title":"Characterization of ESBLs and Associated Quinolone Resistance in Escherichia coli and Klebsiella Pneumoniae Isolates from an Urban Wastewater Treatment Plant in Algeria","volume":"20","author":"Alouache","year":"2014","journal-title":"Microb. Drug Resist."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vounba, P., Arsenault, J., Bada-Alamb\u00e9dji, R., and Fairbrother, J.M. (2019). Prevalence of Antimicrobial Resistance and Potential Pathogenicity, and Possible Spread of Third Generation Cephalosporin Resistance, in Escherichia coli Isolated from Healthy Chicken Farms in the Region of Dakar, Senegal. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0214304"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ball, T., Monte, D., Aidara-Kane, A., Matheu, J., Ru, H., Thakur, S., Ejobi, F., and Fedorka-Cray, P. (2020). International Lineages of Salmonella enterica Serovars Isolated from Chicken Farms, Wakiso District, Uganda. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0220484"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0147124","DOI":"10.1128\/spectrum.01471-24","article-title":"Extended-Spectrum Beta-Lactamase- and Carbapenemase-Producing Escherichia coli Isolates Causing Hospital- and Community-Acquired Infections in Tunisia (2001\u20132019): Expansion of CTX-M-15-C2 and CTX-M-27-C1 ST131 Subclades","volume":"12","author":"Sallem","year":"2024","journal-title":"Microbiol. Spectr."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"280","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jgar.2019.05.007","article-title":"Various Inc-Type Plasmids and Lineages of Escherichia coli and Klebsiella Pneumoniae Spreading BlaCTX-M-15, BlaCTX-M-1 and Mcr-1 Genes in Camels in Tunisia","volume":"19","author":"Saidani","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Glob. Antimicrob. Resist."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19289","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-19289-z","article-title":"Molecular Characterization of Multi Drug Resistant Escherichia coli Isolates at a Tertiary Hospital in Abuja, Nigeria","volume":"12","author":"Medugu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35402","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-35402-2","article-title":"Characterization of Plasmids Carrying Bla CTX-M Genes among Extra-Intestinal Escherichia coli Clinical Isolates in Ethiopia","volume":"13","author":"Negeri","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38902","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-023-38902-x","article-title":"A Global Genomic Analysis of Salmonella Concord Reveals Lineages with High Antimicrobial Resistance in Ethiopia","volume":"14","author":"Cuypers","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4280","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-11844-z","article-title":"An African Salmonella Typhimurium ST313 Sublineage with Extensive Drug-Resistance and Signatures of Host Adaptation","volume":"10","author":"Pickard","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1186\/s40560-020-0429-6","article-title":"Molecular Diversity of Extended-Spectrum \u03b2-Lactamases and Carbapenemases, and Antimicrobial Resistance","volume":"8","author":"Sawa","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Intensive Care"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1186\/s13756-021-00941-8","article-title":"Novel Chromosomal Insertions of ISEcp1-Bla CTX-M-15 and Diverse Antimicrobial Resistance Genes in Zambian Clinical Isolates of Enterobacter Cloacae and Escherichia coli","volume":"10","author":"Shawa","year":"2021","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Resist. Infect. Control"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1186\/s13756-021-00930-x","article-title":"Genetic Relatedness of Multidrug Resistant Escherichia coli Isolated from Humans, Chickens and Poultry Environments","volume":"10","author":"Aworh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Resist. Infect. Control"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1186\/s13756-019-0552-0","article-title":"Distribution of Quinolone Resistance Gene (Qnr) in ESBL-Producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella spp. in Lom\u00e9, Togo","volume":"8","author":"Salah","year":"2019","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Resist. Infect. Control"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ayele, B., Mekonnen, Z., Tessema, T.S., Alemayehu, D.H., Melaku, K., Moga, S., Nassir, M.F., Ayele, A., Mihret, A., and Beyene, G. (2025). Phenotypic and Genotypic Relationships between Shigella Species and Escherichia coli O37:H10 Isolates in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. BMC Res. Notes, 18.","DOI":"10.1186\/s13104-025-07451-5"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mutai, W.C., Waiyaki, P.G., Kariuki, S., and Muigai, A.W.T. (2019). Plasmid Profiling and Incompatibility Grouping of Multidrug Resistant Salmonella enterica Serovar Typhi Isolates in Nairobi, Kenya. BMC Res. Notes, 12.","DOI":"10.1186\/s13104-019-4468-9"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1186\/s12941-015-0093-1","article-title":"Prevalence of Tetracycline Resistance Genes among Multi-Drug Resistant Bacteria from Selected Water Distribution Systems in Southwestern Nigeria","volume":"14","author":"Adesoji","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ann. Clin. Microbiol. Antimicrob."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fashae, K., Engelmann, I., Monecke, S., Braun, S.D., and Ehricht, R. (2021). Molecular Characterisation of Extended-Spectrum \u00df-Lactamase Producing Escherichia coli in Wild Birds and Cattle, Ibadan, Nigeria. BMC Vet. Res., 17.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-020-02734-4"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kasiano, P., Morita, M., Kodama, T., Hiyoshi, H., Kavai, S., Kiiru, S., and Kariuki, S. (2024). Salmonella typhi Genotypic Diversity, Cluster Identification and Antimicrobial Resistance Determinants in Mukuru Settlement, Nairobi Kenya. BMC Infect. Dis., 24.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-024-09635-z"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Estaleva, C.E.L., Zimba, T.F., Sekyere, J.O., Govinden, U., Chenia, H.Y., Simonsen, G.S., Haldorsen, B., Essack, S.Y., and Sundsfjord, A. (2021). High Prevalence of Multidrug Resistant ESBL- and Plasmid Mediated AmpC-Producing Clinical Isolates of Escherichia coli at Maputo Central Hospital, Mozambique. BMC Infect. Dis., 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-020-05696-y"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Irenge, L.M., Ambroise, J., Bearzatto, B., Durant, J.F., Chirimwami, R.B., and Gala, J.L. (2019). Whole-Genome Sequences of Multidrug-Resistant Escherichia coli in South-Kivu Province, Democratic Republic of Congo: Characterization of Phylogenomic Changes, Virulence and Resistance Genes. BMC Infect. Dis., 19.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-019-3763-3"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ajibola, A.T., de Lagarde, M., Ojo, O.E., Balogun, S.A., Vanier, G., Fairbrother, J.M., and Shittu, O.B. (2025). Antimicrobial Resistance and Virulence Gene Profiles of Escherichia coli Isolated from Poultry Farms Using One Health Perspective in Abeokuta, Nigeria. BMC Microbiol., 25.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12866-025-04135-9"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kariuki, K., Diakhate, M.M., Musembi, S., Tornberg-Belanger, S.N., Rwigi, D., Mutuma, T., Mutuku, E., Tickell, K.D., Soge, O.O., and Singa, B.O. (2023). Plasmid-Mediated Quinolone Resistance Genes Detected in Ciprofloxacin Non-Susceptible Escherichia coli and Klebsiella Isolated from Children under Five Years at Hospital Discharge, Kenya. BMC Microbiol., 23.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12866-023-02849-2"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chirindze, L.M., Zimba, T.F., Sekyere, J.O., Govinden, U., Chenia, H.Y., Sundsfjord, A., Essack, S.Y., and Simonsen, G.S. (2018). Faecal Colonization of E. coli and Klebsiella spp. Producing Extended-Spectrum Beta-Lactamases and Plasmid-Mediated AmpC in Mozambican University Students. BMC Infect. Dis., 18.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-018-3154-1"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ben Yahia, H., Ben Sallem, R., Tayh, G., Klibi, N., Ben Amor, I., Gharsa, H., Boudabbous, A., and Ben Slama, K. (2018). Detection of CTX-M-15 Harboring Escherichia coli Isolated from Wild Birds in Tunisia. BMC Microbiol., 18.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12866-018-1163-2"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dsani, E., Afari, E.A., Danso-Appiah, A., Kenu, E., Kaburi, B.B., and Egyir, B. (2020). Antimicrobial Resistance and Molecular Detection of Extended Spectrum \u03b2-Lactamase Producing Escherichia coli Isolates from Raw Meat in Greater Accra Region, Ghana. BMC Microbiol., 20.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12866-020-01935-z"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gemeda, M.T., Meka, A.F., Mamo, A.N., Bekele, G.K., Ali, J., and Abas, M.K. (2025). Diversity of Antibiotic Resistance Genes and Mobile Genetic Elements of Sof Umer Cave Microbiomes, Ethiopia. BMC Genom. Data, 26.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12863-025-01334-1"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Breurec, S., Reynaud, Y., Frank, T., Farra, A., Costilhes, G., Weill, F.X., and Hello, S. (2019). Le Serotype Distribution and Antimicrobial Resistance of Human Salmonella enterica in Bangui, Central African Republic, from 2004 to 2013. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0007917"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2744","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-017-0686-7","article-title":"Extended Spectrum Beta-Lactamase (ESBL)-Producing Bacteria Isolated from Hospital Wastewaters, Rivers and Aquaculture Sources in Nigeria","volume":"25","author":"Adelowo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"318","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1348-0421.2011.00323.x","article-title":"Molecular Characterization of Antimicrobial Resistance in Gram-Negative Bacteria Isolated from Bovine Mastitis in Egypt","volume":"55","author":"Ahmed","year":"2011","journal-title":"Microbiol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sunmonu, G.T., Adzitey, F., Odih, E.E., Tibile, B.A., Ekli, R., Aduah, M., Oaikhena, A.O., Akinlabi, O.C., Abia, A.L.K., and Amoako, D.G. (2025). Genomic Characterization of Foodborne Salmonella enterica and Escherichia coli Isolates from Saboba District and Bolgatanga Municipality Ghana. PLoS ONE, 20.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0315583"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101224","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lanmic.2025.101224","article-title":"Transmission of Extended Spectrum \u03b2-Lactamase-Producing Escherichia coli and Antimicrobial Resistance Gene Flow across One Health Compartments in Eastern Africa: A Whole-Genome Sequence Analysis from a Prospective Cohort Study","volume":"7","author":"Musicha","year":"2025","journal-title":"Lancet Microbe"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1007\/s10393-023-01670-7","article-title":"Comprehensive Genomic Characterization of Antibiotic Resistance, Virulence, and Clonality in Salmonella Isolates from Wild Animals in Algeria","volume":"20","author":"Bellil","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ecohealth"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sunmonu, G.T., Saba, C.K.S., Odih, E.E., Bright, O., Osei, E.E.Y., Mensah, A., Abdallah, S., Alhassan, A.R., Kpordze, S.W., and Akinlabi, O.C. (2025). Genomic Analysis of Salmonella enterica from Cattle, Beef and Humans in the Greater Tamale Metropolis of Ghana. PLoS ONE, 20.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0325048"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70098","DOI":"10.1002\/puh2.70098","article-title":"Exploring the Genetic Diversity, Virulence and Antimicrobial Resistance of Diarrhoeagenic Escherichia coli from Southern Africa Using Whole-Genome Data","volume":"4","author":"Gichure","year":"2025","journal-title":"Public Health Chall."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01021-18","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.01021-18","article-title":"Screening and Characterization of Multidrug-Resistant Gram-Negative Bacteria from a Remote African Area, S\u00e3o Tom\u00e9 and Pr\u00edncipe","volume":"62","author":"Poirel","year":"2018","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"570","DOI":"10.1007\/s10393-019-01404-8","article-title":"Virulence and Antibiotic Resistance Patterns in E. coli, Morocco","volume":"16","author":"Barguigua","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ecohealth"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01683-24","DOI":"10.1128\/msystems.01683-24","article-title":"Plasmid-Borne Mcr-1 and Replicative Transposition of Episomal and Chromosomal Bla NDM-1, Bla OXA-69, and Bla OXA-23 Carbapenemases in a Clinical Acinetobacter Baumannii Isolate","volume":"10","author":"Mmatli","year":"2025","journal-title":"mSystems"},{"key":"ref_91","first-page":"001454","article-title":"Dissemination of Extended-Spectrum Beta-Lactamase-Producing Escherichia coli in Poultry in Zimbabwe","volume":"11","author":"Katsande","year":"2025","journal-title":"Microb. Genom."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eger, E., Heiden, S.E., Korolew, K., Bayingana, C., Ndoli, J.M., Sendegeya, A., Gahutu, J.B., Kurz, M.S.E., Mockenhaupt, F.P., and M\u00fcller, J. (2021). Circulation of Extended-Spectrum Beta-Lactamase-Producing Escherichia coli of Pandemic Sequence Types 131, 648, and 410 Among Hospitalized Patients, Caregivers, and the Community in Rwanda. Front. Microbiol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2021.662575"},{"key":"ref_93","first-page":"001581","article-title":"Genomic Characterisation of Multidrug-Resistant Salmonella enterica Serovar Kentucky ST198 Isolates from Various Sources in Algeria, North Africa","volume":"11","author":"Benamrouche","year":"2025","journal-title":"Microb. Genom."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tettey, R., Egyir, B., Tettey, P., Arko-Mensah, J., Ofori Addo, S., Owusu-Nyantakyi, C., Boateng, W., and Fobil, J. (2024). Genomic Analysis of Multidrug-Resistant Escherichia coli from Urban Environmental Water Sources in Accra, Ghana, Provides Insights into Public Health Implications. PLoS ONE, 19.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0301531"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.12688\/gatesopenres.16311.1","article-title":"An Exploration of Unusual Antimicrobial Resistance Phenotypes in Salmonella typhi from Blantyre, Malawi Reveals the Ongoing Role of IncHI1 Plasmids","volume":"8","author":"Zuza","year":"2024","journal-title":"Gates Open Res."},{"key":"ref_96","first-page":"fnac004","article-title":"Clonal Relationship between Multidrug-Resistant Escherichia coli ST69 from Poultry and Humans in Lusaka, Zambia","volume":"368","author":"Shawa","year":"2021","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Anyanwu, M.U., Jaja, I.F., Okpala, C.O.R., Njoga, E.O., Okafor, N.A., and Oguttu, J.W. (2023). Mobile Colistin Resistance (Mcr) Gene-Containing Organisms in Poultry Sector in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: Epidemiology, Characteristics, and One Health Control Strategies. Antibiotics, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics12071117"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abdalla, S.E., Bester, L.A., Abia, A.L.K., Allam, M., Ismail, A., Essack, S.Y., and Amoako, D.G. (2025). Genomic Insights of Antibiotic-Resistant Escherichia coli Isolated from Intensive Pig Farming in South Africa Using \u2018Farm-to-Fork\u2019 Approach. Antibiotics, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics14050446"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barata, R., Saavedra, M.J., and Almeida, G. (2024). A Decade of Antimicrobial Resistance in Human and Animal Campylobacter Spp. Isolates. Antibiotics, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics13090904"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aworh, M.K., Nilsson, P., Egyir, B., Owusu, F.A., and Hendriksen, R.S. (2024). Rare Serovars of Non-Typhoidal Salmonella enterica Isolated from Humans, Beef Cattle and Abattoir Environments in Nigeria. PLoS ONE, 19.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0296971"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1007\/s10096-015-2534-3","article-title":"Clonal Relationship between Human and Avian Ciprofloxacin-Resistant Escherichia coli Isolates in North-Eastern Algeria","volume":"35","author":"Agabou","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Odoch, T., Sekse, C., L\u2019abee-Lund, T.M., Hansen, H.C.H., Kankya, C., and Wasteson, Y. (2018). Diversity and Antimicrobial Resistance Genotypes in Non-Typhoidal Salmonella Isolates from Poultry Farms in Uganda. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph15020324"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1007\/s11250-014-0680-8","article-title":"Prevalence and Detection of Antibiotic-Resistant Determinant in Salmonella Isolated from Food-Producing Animals","volume":"47","author":"Igbinosa","year":"2015","journal-title":"Trop. Anim. Health Prod."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1579","DOI":"10.2166\/wh.2024.319","article-title":"Antibiotic Resistance of E. coli Isolates from Different Water Sources in Mbarara, Uganda","volume":"22","author":"Claudia","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Water Health"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aworh, M.K., Ekeng, E., Nilsson, P., Egyir, B., Owusu-Nyantakyi, C., and Hendriksen, R.S. (2022). Extended-Spectrum \u00df-Lactamase-Producing Escherichia coli Among Humans, Beef Cattle, and Abattoir Environments in Nigeria. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2022.869314"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"865","DOI":"10.1080\/22221751.2021.1920342","article-title":"Emergence of Oxacillinase-181 Carbapenemase-Producing Diarrheagenic Escherichia coli in Ghana","volume":"10","author":"Prah","year":"2021","journal-title":"Emerg. Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ochieng, C., Chen, J.C., Osita, M.P., Katz, L.S., Griswold, T., Omballa, V., Ng\u2019eno, E., Ouma, A., Wamola, N., and Opiyo, C. (2022). Molecular Characterization of Circulating Salmonella typhi Strains in an Urban Informal Settlement in Kenya. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0010704"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ziadi, H., Chougrani, F., Cheriguene, A., Carballeira, L., Garc\u00eda, V., and Mora, A. (2025). Phenotypic and Genotypic Characterization of ESBL-, AmpC-, and Carbapenemase-Producing Klebsiella Pneumoniae and High-Risk Escherichia coli CC131, with the First Report of ST1193 as a Causative Agent of Urinary Tract Infections in Human Patients in Algeria. Antibiotics, 14.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202503.2034.v1"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Benlabidi, S., Raddaoui, A., Lengliz, S., Cheriet, S., Hynds, P., Achour, W., Ghrairi, T., and Abbassi, M.S. (2023). Occurrence of High-Risk Clonal Lineages ST58, ST69, ST224, and ST410 among Extended-Spectrum \u03b2-Lactamase-Producing Escherichia coli Isolated from Healthy Free-Range Chickens (Gallus Gallus Domesticus) in a Rural Region in Tunisia. Genes, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/genes14040875"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Beyene, A.M., Alemie, Y., Gizachew, M., Yousef, A.E., Dessalegn, B., Bitew, A.B., Alemu, A., Gobena, W., Christian, K., and Gelaw, B. (2024). Serovars, Virulence Factors, and Antimicrobial Resistance Profile of Non-Typhoidal Salmonella in the Human-Dairy Interface in Northwest Ethiopia: A One Health Approach. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 18.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0012646"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Matle, I., Pfukenyi, D.M., Maphori, N., Moatshe, N., Nkabinde, T., Motaung, A., Schmidt, T., Seakamela, E., Mwanza, M., and Ngoma, L. (2025). Monitoring, Surveillance, Antimicrobial Resistance and Genetic Diversity Analysis of Non-Typhoidal Salmonella in South Africa from 1960\u20132023 from Animal and Animal Products. PLoS ONE, 20.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0329061"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ramadan, H., Soliman, A.M., Hiott, L.M., Elbediwi, M., Woodley, T.A., Chattaway, M.A., Jenkins, C., Frye, J.G., and Jackson, C.R. (2021). Emergence of Multidrug-Resistant Escherichia coli Producing CTX-M, MCR-1, and FosA in Retail Food from Egypt. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2021.681588"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1103","DOI":"10.3855\/jidc.4222","article-title":"Antibiotic Resistance and Resistance Genes in Escherichia coli from Poultry Farms, Southwest Nigeria","volume":"8","author":"Adelowo","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dev. Ctries."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mthembu, T.P., Zishiri, O.T., and El Zowalaty, M.E. (2021). Genomic Characterization of Antimicrobial Resistance in Food Chain and Livestock-associated Salmonella Species. Animals, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani11030872"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.11604\/pamj.2022.43.207.33734","article-title":"Plasmid-Mediated Quinolone Resistance Determinants in Clinical Bacterial Pathogens Isolated from the Western Region of Ghana: A Cross-Sectional Study","volume":"43","author":"Sah","year":"2022","journal-title":"Pan Afr. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mbanga, J., Amoako, D.G., Abia, A.L.K., Allam, M., Ismail, A., and Essack, S.Y. (2021). Genomic Insights of Multidrug-Resistant Escherichia coli from Wastewater Sources and Their Association with Clinical Pathogens in South Africa. Front. Vet. Sci., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2021.636715"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Takawira, F.T., Pitout, J.D.D., Thilliez, G., Mashe, T., Gutierrez, A.V., Kingsley, R.A., Peirano, G., Matheu, J., Midzi, S.M., and Mwamakamba, L.W. (2022). Faecal Carriage of ESBL Producing and Colistin Resistant Escherichia coli in Avian Species over a 2-Year Period (2017\u20132019) in Zimbabwe. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2022.1035145"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1779","DOI":"10.4315\/JFP-22-167","article-title":"Study of Virulence Genes, Antimicrobial Resistance, and Genetic Relatedness of Foodborne Salmonella Isolates from Tunisia","volume":"85","author":"Hassena","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Food Prot."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1410","DOI":"10.1089\/mdr.2018.0305","article-title":"Plasmid Replicons and \u03b2-Lactamase-Encoding Genes of Multidrug-Resistant Escherichia coli Isolated from Humans and Food Animals in Lagos, Southwest Nigeria","volume":"25","author":"Adenipekun","year":"2019","journal-title":"Microb. Drug Resist."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"896","DOI":"10.1089\/mdr.2017.0171","article-title":"Diversity of CTX-M Extended-Spectrum \u03b2-Lactamases in Escherichia coli Isolates from Retail Raw Ground Beef: First Report of CTX-M-24 and CTX-M-32 in Algeria","volume":"24","author":"Rebbah","year":"2018","journal-title":"Microb. Drug Resist."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1089\/mdr.2018.0380","article-title":"High Prevalence of Antimicrobial Resistance in Gram-Negative Bacteria Isolated from Clinical Settings in Egypt: Recalling for Judicious Use of Conventional Antimicrobials in Developing Nations","volume":"25","author":"Khalifa","year":"2019","journal-title":"Microb. Drug Resist."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lamikanra, A., Crowe, J.L., Lijek, R.S., Odetoyin, B.W., Wain, J., Aboderin, A.O., and Okeke, I.N. (2011). Rapid Evolution of Fluoroquinolone-Resistant Escherichia coli in Nigeria Is Temporally Associated with Fluoroquinolone Use. BMC Infect. Dis., 11.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2334-11-312"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"468","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268807008916","article-title":"Molecular Typing of Salmonella enterica Serovars Enteritidis, Corvallis, Anatum and Typhimurium from Food and Human Stool Samples in Tunisia, 2001\u20132004","volume":"136","author":"Aissa","year":"2008","journal-title":"Epidemiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1269849","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/1269849","article-title":"Genetic Background of Antimicrobial Resistance in Multiantimicrobial-Resistant Escherichia coli Isolates from Feces of Healthy Broiler Chickens in Tunisia","volume":"2021","author":"Abbassi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biomed. Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_125","unstructured":"FAO (2021). The FAO Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance 2021\u20132025, FAO."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e201","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(23)00539-9","article-title":"The Burden of Bacterial Antimicrobial Resistance in the WHO African Region in 2019: A Cross-Country Systematic Analysis","volume":"12","author":"Sartorius","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_127","unstructured":"WHO (2020). GLASS Whole-Genome Sequencing for Surveillance of Antimicrobial Resistance Global Antimicrobial Resistance and Use Surveillance System (GLASS), WHO."},{"key":"ref_128","unstructured":"(2025, December 30). Resource Type Themes Keywords African Union AMR Landmark Report: Voicing African Priorities on the Active Pandemic. Available online: https:\/\/africacdc.org\/download\/african-union-amr-landmark-report-voic."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107828","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2025.107828","article-title":"AMR Surveillance in Africa: Are We There Yet?","volume":"152","author":"Essack","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_130","unstructured":"WOAH (2024). Forecasting the Fallout from AMR: Human Health Impacts of Antimicrobial Resistance. A Report from the EcoAMR Series, WOAH."},{"key":"ref_131","unstructured":"WHO (2019). Monitoring Global Progress on Antimicrobial Resistance: Tripartite AMR Country Self-Assessment Survey, WHO."},{"key":"ref_132","first-page":"000605","article-title":"Elucidation of Global and National Genomic Epidemiology of Salmonella enterica Serovar Enteritidis through Multilevel Genome Typing","volume":"7","author":"Luo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Microb. Genom."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00732-19","DOI":"10.1128\/mSphere.00732-19","article-title":"Emergence and Comparative Genomics Analysis of Extended-Spectrum-\u03b2-Lactamase-Producing Escherichia coli Carrying Mcr-1 in Fennec Fox Imported from Sudan to China","volume":"4","author":"Feng","year":"2019","journal-title":"mSphere"},{"key":"ref_134","unstructured":"Hassen, K.A., Fafetine, J., Augusto, L., Mandomando, I., Garrine, M., and Guddina, S. (2026, February 24). The Role of Mobile Genetic Elements in the Spread of Antimicrobial Resistance Across Human, Animal, and Environmental Interfaces in Africa: A Systematic Review. PROSPERO 2026 CRD420251271257. Available online: https:\/\/www.crd.york.ac.uk\/PROSPERO\/view\/CRD420251271257."},{"key":"ref_135","first-page":"428","article-title":"Cartography for Global Sustainable Development Agendas: Informing Public Policies with Geospatial Information and Knowledge for People, Places and Planet","volume":"11","author":"Sourd","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Cartogr."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1186\/s13643-016-0384-4","article-title":"Rayyan-a Web and Mobile App for Systematic Reviews","volume":"5","author":"Ouzzani","year":"2016","journal-title":"Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1002\/jrsm.1411","article-title":"Risk-of-Bias VISualization (Robvis): An R Package and Shiny Web App for Visualizing Risk-of-Bias Assessments","volume":"Volume 12","author":"McGuinness","year":"2021","journal-title":"Proceedings of the Research Synthesis Methods"}],"container-title":["Antibiotics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6382\/15\/5\/456\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,15]],"date-time":"2026-05-15T09:23:50Z","timestamp":1778837030000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6382\/15\/5\/456"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,30]]},"references-count":137,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5]]}},"alternative-id":["antibiotics15050456"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/antibiotics15050456","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-6382"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-6382","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,30]]}}}