{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T11:18:29Z","timestamp":1788261509379,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,30]],"date-time":"2026-08-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788048000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Antibiotics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: Colibacillosis, caused by enteropathogenic strains of Escherichia coli (EPEC), is one of the most common infectious diseases in rabbit farms. In the past, antimicrobials were widely used to control colibacillosis, but their use in prevention is currently prohibited. Therefore, the adoption of new prevention strategies as alternatives to the use of antibiotics is very important. The aim of this study was to evaluate the antimicrobial efficacy of cinnamon essential oil (Cinnamomum zeylanicum) against EPEC strains responsible for colibacillosis in rabbits. Methods: For the experiment, 124 strains of E. coli isolated from rabbits that had died of colibacillosis in 10 industrial farms were used. Suspensions of each strain prepared according to CLSI standards with a bacterial density of 1 \u00d7 108 CFU\/mL were tested using 100% pure commercial cinnamon essential oil (CEO) at concentrations ranging from 0.2 to 0.8 \u03bcL\/mL. Minimum inhibitory concentrations MIC50 and MIC90 were determined according to a protocol described previously. Results: MIC50 and MIC90 were 0.5 \u03bcL\/mL and 0.6 \u03bcL\/mL, inhibiting 64.5% and 94.3% of strains, respectively. Furthermore, strains exposed to 0.4 \u03bcL\/mL were 12.9 times more likely to be inhibited than those exposed to 0.3 \u03bcL\/mL (p = 0.0001). Conclusions: CEO was found to be effective against E. coli strains tested at high bacterial densities that can usually be found per gram of faeces in rabbits affected by colibacillosis. Consequently, cinnamon should be useful in preventing colibacillosis by limiting the replication of E. coli, as it is usually found in lower densities in the intestines of healthy rabbits, preventing the onset of colibacillosis and reducing the use of antibiotics in rabbit farms.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics15090840","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T10:32:18Z","timestamp":1788258738000},"page":"840","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Cinnamon Essential Oil: A Promising Natural Strategy for the Prevention of Rabbit Colibacillosis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2342-1903","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gaia","family":"Casalino","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Bari, S. P. Casamassima km 3, 70010 Valenzano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3813-5501","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Davide","family":"Messina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Veterinary Clinical Science, School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington Campus, Loughborough LE12 5RD, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9309-5966","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roberta","family":"Tardugno","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy-Drug Sciences, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Via Orabona, 4, 70125 Bari, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4991-3962","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giuseppe","family":"Fracchiolla","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy-Drug Sciences, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Via Orabona, 4, 70125 Bari, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1225-0205","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giancarlo","family":"Bozzo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Bari, S. P. Casamassima km 3, 70010 Valenzano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dalila","family":"Salierno","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Bari, S. P. Casamassima km 3, 70010 Valenzano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4636-3547","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francesco","family":"D\u2019Amico","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dipartimento della Prevenzione-S.C. Sanit\u00e0 Animale, Azienda Sanitaria Locale di Alessandria, distretto di Tortona Corso Romita 25-B, 15057 Tortona, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Martina","family":"Canale","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Bari, S. P. Casamassima km 3, 70010 Valenzano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Antonella","family":"Bove","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Bari, S. P. Casamassima km 3, 70010 Valenzano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3961-585X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antonio","family":"Camarda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Bari, S. P. Casamassima km 3, 70010 Valenzano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9625-2920","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elena","family":"Circella","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Bari, S. P. Casamassima km 3, 70010 Valenzano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"e05944","article-title":"Health and welfare of rabbits farmed in different production systems","volume":"18","author":"Nielsen","year":"2020","journal-title":"EFSA J."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Lavazza, A., Cerioli, M., and Grilli, G. (2009). Biosafety in rabbit breeding. Proceedings of the Convegno Nazionale Cunicolo, Sirmione del Garda, Italy, Fondazione Iniziative Zooprofilattiche e Zootecniche."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"385","article-title":"A review of the major causes of digestive disorders in the European rabbit","volume":"147","author":"Marlier","year":"2003","journal-title":"Ann. M\u00e9d. V\u00e9t."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Licois, D. (2004). Domestic rabbit enteropathies. Proceedings of the 8th World Rabbit Congress, Puebla, Mexico, Colegio de Postgraduados (COLPOS)."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Agnoletti, F. (2012, January 3\u20136). Update on rabbit enteric diseases: Despite improved diagnostic capacity, where does disease control and prevention stand. Proceedings of the 10th World Rabbit Congress, Sharm El-Sheikh, Egypt."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"van der Sluis, M., van Zeeland, Y.R., and de Greef, K.H. (2024). Digestive problems in rabbit production: Moving in the wrong direction?. Front. Vet. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2024.1354651"},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Poli, G., Dall\u2019Ara, P., Martino, P.A., and Rosati, S. (2017). Microbiologia e immunologia veterinaria. Microbiologia Eiimmunologi Veterinaria, Edra. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01876-19","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.01876-19","article-title":"Pathogenic Escherichia coli hijacks GTPase-activated p21-activated kinase for actin pedestal formation","volume":"10","author":"Singh","year":"2019","journal-title":"mBio"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pakbin, B., Br\u00fcck, W.M., and Rossen, J.W. (2021). Virulence factors of enteric pathogenic Escherichia coli: A review. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202108.0348.v1"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.5005\/jp-journals-11002-0056","article-title":"Pathophysiology of Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli-induced diarrhea","volume":"2","author":"Kaur","year":"2013","journal-title":"Newborn"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Boucher, S., and Leplat, A. (2005, January 29\u201330). De quoi meurent nos lapins. Table ronde: Effets des conduites post-sevrage sur les performances et la sant\u00e9 des lapereaux. Proceedings of the 11\u00e8mes Journ\u00e9es de la Recherche Cunicole, Paris, France."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Grilli, G., Ferrazzi, V., Agnoletti, F., Piccirillo, A., Pisoni, A.M., and Gallazzi, D. (2006, January 10). Enteric diseases in meat rabbits raised in Italy. Proceedings of the Aggiornamenti Sulle Patologie Enteriche Nella Moderna Coniglicoltura: Spagna, Francia e Italia a Confronto, Sirmione del Garda, Italy."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"127","article-title":"Study of urgent visits to commercial rabbit farms in Spain and Portugal during 1997\u20132007","volume":"17","author":"Rosell","year":"2009","journal-title":"World Rabbit Sci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vaou, N., Stavropoulou, E., Voidarou, C., Tsigalou, C., and Bezirtzoglou, E. (2021). Towards advances in medicinal plant antimicrobial activity: A review study on challenges and future perspectives. Microorganisms, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms9102041"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lanave, G., Pellegrini, F., Triggiano, F., De Giglio, O., Lucente, M.S., Diakoudi, G., Catella, C., Gentile, A., Tardugno, R., and Fracchiolla, G. (2024). In Vitro Virucidal Activity of Different Essential Oils against Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus Used as Surrogate of Human Hepatitis C Virus. Antibiotics, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics13060514"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Adams, R.P. (2007). Identification of Essential Oil Components by Gas Chromatography\/Mass Spectroscopy, Allured Pub. Corp.. [4th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-1135(02)00148-7","article-title":"Serobiotypes and virulence genes of Escherichia coli strains isolated from diarrheic and healthy rabbits in Brazil","volume":"89","author":"Penteado","year":"2002","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"dlab060","DOI":"10.1093\/jacamr\/dlab060","article-title":"The antibiogram: Key considerations for its development and utilization","volume":"3","author":"Truong","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAC Antimicrob. Resist."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"CLSI (2006). Methods for Dilution Antimicrobial Susceptibility Tests for Bacteria that Grow Aerobically: Approved Standard, Clinical Laboratory Standard Institute. [7th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"D\u2019Amico, F., Casalino, G., Dinardo, F.R., Schiavitto, M., Camarda, A., Romito, D., Bove, A., and Circella, E. (2023). Antimicrobial Efficacy of Phyto-L, Thiosulfonate from Allium spp. Containing Supplement, against Escherichia coli Strains from Rabbits. Vet. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/vetsci10070411"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Casalino, G., Dinardo, F.R., D\u2019Amico, F., Bozzo, G., Bove, A., Camarda, A., Lombardi, R., Dimuccio, M.M., and Circella, E. (2023). Antimicrobial efficacy of cinnamon essential oil against avian pathogenic Escherichia coli from poultry. Animals, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani13162639"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Circella, E., Casalino, G., D\u2019Amico, F., Pugliese, N., Dimuccio, M.M., Camarda, A., and Bozzo, G. (2022). In vitro antimicrobial effectiveness tests using garlic (Allium sativum) against Salmonella enterica subspecies enterica serovar Enteritidis. Antibiotics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics11111481"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1080\/10412905.2024.2332379","article-title":"Comparative study on chemical characteristics of essential oils and genetic characteristics of true Cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume) and three wild Cinnamon species of Sri Lanka","volume":"36","author":"Weeratunge","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Essent. Oil Res."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3274","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fct.2010.09.001","article-title":"Composition, antimicrobial activity and in vitro cytotoxicity of essential oil from Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume (Lauraceae)","volume":"48","author":"Unlu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Food Chem. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3989","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules17043989","article-title":"Essential oils in combination and their antimicrobial properties","volume":"17","author":"Juliani","year":"2012","journal-title":"Molecules"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1128\/mr.59.2.201-222.1995","article-title":"Mechanism of membrane toxicity of hydrocarbons","volume":"59","author":"Sikkema","year":"1995","journal-title":"Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2015.05.032","article-title":"Antibacterial activity and mechanism of cinnamon essential oil against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus","volume":"59","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Food Control"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"626","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2672.1994.tb01661.x","article-title":"Factors that interact with the antibacterial action of thyme essential oil and its active constituents","volume":"76","author":"Juven","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Appl. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2004.03.022","article-title":"Essential oils: Their antibacterial properties and potential applications in foods\u2014A review","volume":"94","author":"Burt","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guo, J., Jiang, X., Tian, Y., Yan, S., Liu, J., Xie, J., Zhang, F., Yao, C., and Hao, E. (2024). Therapeutic potential of cinnamon oil: Chemical composition, pharmacological actions and applications. Pharmaceuticals, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ph17121700"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pereira, W.A., Pereira, C.D., Assun\u00e7\u00e3o, R.G., da Silva, I.S., Rego, F.S., Alves, L.S., Santos, J.S., Nogueira, F.J., Zagmignan, A., and Thomsen, T. (2021). New insights into the antimicrobial action of cinnamaldehyde towards Escherichia coli and its effects on intestinal colonization of mice. Biomolecules, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom11020302"},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"35","article-title":"Pathologie d\u2019origine bact\u00e9rienne et parasitaire chez le lapin: Apports de la derni\u00e8re d\u00e9cennie","volume":"37","author":"Licois","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cunicult. Mag."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Padilha, M.T., Licois, D., and Coudert, P. (1996). Frequency of the carriage and enumeration of Escherichia coli in caecal content of 15- to 49-day-old rabbits. Proceedings of the 6th World Rabbit Congress, Toulouse, France, World Rabbit Science Association (WRSA)."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.3855\/jidc.8807","article-title":"Colibacillosis in a New Zealand white rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus)","volume":"11","author":"Saravia","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dev. Ctries."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sim\u00f5es, J., and Monteiro, J.M. (2024). Escherichia coli in the rabbit: Commensal or pathogenic. Veterinary Care of Farm Rabbits, Springer. [1st ed.].","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-44542-2"},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), and European Medicines Agency (EMA) (2017). EMA and EFSA Joint Scientific Opinion on Measures to Reduce the Need to Use Antimicrobial Agents in Animal Husbandry in the European Union and the Resulting Impacts on Food Safety. EFSA J., 15."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"European Commission (2025, November 11). Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2024\/1973 of 18 July 2024 Establishing a List of Antimicrobials Which Shall Not Be Used in Accordance with Articles 112 and 113 of Regulation (EU) 2019\/6 of the European Parliament and of the Council or Which Shall Only Be Used in Accordance with Those Articles Subject to Certain Conditions. Available online: https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/eli\/reg_impl\/2024\/1973\/oj."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sun, C., Wang, Z., Li, Y., and Huang, J. (2024). Antibiotic resistance spectrums of Escherichia coli and Enterococcus spp. strains against commonly used antimicrobials from commercial meat-rabbit farms in Chengdu City, Southwest China. Front. Vet. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2024.1369655"},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Agnoletti, F., Bano, L., Brichese, M., Cagnardi, P., D\u2019Alba, A., Dorigo, F., Peresson, A., and Ravagnani, A. (2025, November 11). Linee Guida per l\u2019Uso Prudente dell\u2019Antibiotico nell\u2019Allevamento del Coniglio da Carne. Direzione Generale della Sanit\u00e0 Animale e dei Farmaci Veterinari (DGSAF). Available online: https:\/\/www.izsvenezie.it\/documenti\/comunicazione\/materiale-editoriale\/2-manuali\/uso-prudente-antibiotici-allevamento-coniglio-carne.pdf."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.2174\/1874285801408010006","article-title":"Essential oils, a new horizon in combating bacterial antibiotic resistance","volume":"8","author":"Yap","year":"2014","journal-title":"Open Microbiol. J."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"P\u00e9rez-Flores, J., Garc\u00eda-Curiel, L., P\u00e9rez-Escalante, E., Contreras-L\u00f3pez, E., Aguilar-Lira, G.Y., \u00c1ngel-Jij\u00f3n, C., Gonz\u00e1lez-Olivares, L.G., Baena-Santill\u00e0n, E.S., Ocampo-Salinas, I.O., and Guerrero-Solano, J.A. (2025). Plant antimicrobial compounds and their mechanisms of action on spoilage and pathogenic bacteria: A bibliometric study and literature review. Appl. Sci., 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/app15073516"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u00c1lvarez-Mart\u00ednez, F.J., Barraj\u00f3n-Catal\u00e1n, E., and Micol, V. (2020). Tackling antibiotic resistance with compounds of natural origin: A comprehensive review. Biomedicines, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines8100405"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Matei, A.T., and Visan, A.I. (2025). Mechanism, efficacy, and safety of natural antibiotics. Antibiotics, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics14100981"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Circella, E., Lucatello, L., Montanucci, L., Belloli, C., and Capolongo, F. (2025). Simulation of a field condition to evaluate the risk of enrofloxacin-resistant Pasteurella multocida strain selection in food-producing rabbits treated via drinking water. Front. Vet. Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2025.1474409"}],"container-title":["Antibiotics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6382\/15\/9\/840\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T10:48:25Z","timestamp":1788259705000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6382\/15\/9\/840"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,30]]},"references-count":44,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["antibiotics15090840"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/antibiotics15090840","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-6382"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-6382","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,30]]}}}