{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,11]],"date-time":"2026-09-11T09:20:05Z","timestamp":1789118405970,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,11]],"date-time":"2026-09-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789084800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Antibiotics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) are important zoonotic pathogens associated with gastrointestinal infections and hemolytic\u2013uremic syndrome (HUS). Increasing serotype diversity, emergence of hybrid strains, and growing antimicrobial resistance complicate surveillance and treatment. This review summarizes recent data on STEC isolated from major animal reservoirs between 2020 and 2026. Methods: We comparatively analyzed peer-reviewed, open-access studies investigating STEC from cattle, sheep, goats, poultry, wildlife, and related animal products. We extracted and evaluated data on serotypes, virulence genes, hybrid pathotypes, and antimicrobial resistance determinants. Results: High serotype diversity was observed across all reservoirs, with non-O157 STEC frequently predominating over O157:H7. Ruminant isolates commonly carried stx2 and additional virulence determinants associated with severe human disease, confirming cattle and small ruminants as major reservoirs of highly pathogenic STEC. Poultry-associated isolates showed greater variability in virulence profiles but frequently exhibited high rates of multidrug resistance. Hybrid strains combining virulence traits characteristic of multiple E. coli pathotypes were increasingly reported. Livestock-associated STEC commonly carried resistance determinants against \u03b2-lactams, tetracyclines, sulfonamides, quinolones, and polymyxins, whereas wildlife isolates generally showed lower rates of resistance. Conclusions: Animal-associated STEC populations demonstrate increasing genomic diversity, pathogenic potential, and antimicrobial resistance. The growing prevalence of non-O157 and hybrid strains highlights the limitations of traditional serotype-focused surveillance and emphasizes the need for integrated One Health monitoring strategies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics15090891","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,11]],"date-time":"2026-09-11T08:17:42Z","timestamp":1789114662000},"page":"891","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli in Animal Reservoirs, Serotype Diversity, Virulence Profiles, and Antimicrobial Resistance Trends (2020\u20132026): A Scoping Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5023-1531","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Katarzyna","family":"Kosznik-Kwa\u015bnicka","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Gda\u0144sk, 80-204 Gdansk, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9051-4077","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Agnieszka","family":"Necel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Gda\u0144sk, 80-204 Gdansk, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tomasz","family":"Jarzembowski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Gda\u0144sk, 80-204 Gdansk, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9222-7330","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lidia","family":"Piechowicz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Gda\u0144sk, 80-204 Gdansk, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00301-25","DOI":"10.1128\/mmbr.00301-25","article-title":"Deleterious Consequences of Shiga Toxin in the CNS","volume":"90","author":"Arias","year":"2026","journal-title":"Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Santarsiero, D., Galbusera, M., Gastoldi, S., Bresin, E., Piras, R., Alberti, M., Vivarelli, M., Prandini, S., Conti, S., and Zotta, F. (2026). Molecular Determinants of STEC-HUS: From Complement Activation to Microvascular Thrombosis. Front. Immunol., 17.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2026.1749811"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), and European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) (2025). The European Union One Health 2024 Zoonoses Report. EFSA J., 23, e9759.","DOI":"10.2903\/j.efsa.2025.9759"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.4014\/jmb.0908.08007","article-title":"A Brief Overview of Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Its Plasmid O157","volume":"20","author":"Lim","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2633","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1462-2920.2010.02293.x","article-title":"Cattle, Weather and Water: Mapping Escherichia coli O157:H7 Infections in Humans in England and Scotland","volume":"12","author":"Money","year":"2010","journal-title":"Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1089\/fpd.2012.1401","article-title":"Increased Recognition of Non-O157 Shiga Toxin\u2013Producing Escherichia coli Infections in the United States During 2000\u20132010: Epidemiologic Features and Comparison with E. coli O157 Infections","volume":"10","author":"Gould","year":"2013","journal-title":"Foodborne Pathog. Dis."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1501","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.03617-13","article-title":"Real-Time Whole-Genome Sequencing for Routine Typing, Surveillance, and Outbreak Detection of Verotoxigenic Escherichia coli","volume":"52","author":"Joensen","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"267","article-title":"Molecular Serotyping of Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli (STEC) of Animal Origin in Iran Reveals the Presence of Important Non-O157 Seropathotypes","volume":"14","author":"Taban","year":"2023","journal-title":"Vet. Res. Forum"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1128\/microbiolspec.EHEC-0027-2014","article-title":"Animal Reservoirs of Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli","volume":"2","author":"Persad","year":"2014","journal-title":"Microbiol. Spectr."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M\u00fchlen, S., and Dersch, P. (2020). Treatment Strategies for Infections with Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2020.00169"},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"289","article-title":"Prevalence and Antibiotic Resistance Profile of Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli Isolated from Diarrheal Samples","volume":"12","author":"Bonyadian","year":"2020","journal-title":"Iran. J. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4907","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00551-10","article-title":"Antimicrobial Resistance Testing of Verocytotoxin-Producing Escherichia coli and First Description of TEM-52 Extended-Spectrum \u03b2-Lactamase in Serogroup O26","volume":"54","author":"Buvens","year":"2010","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cll.2009.11.001","article-title":"Shiga Toxin\u2013Producing Escherichia coli (STEC)","volume":"30","author":"Hunt","year":"2010","journal-title":"Clin. Lab. Med."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sapountzis, P., Segura, A., Desvaux, M., and Forano, E. (2020). An Overview of the Elusive Passenger in the Gastrointestinal Tract of Cattle: The Shiga Toxin Producing Escherichia coli. Microorganisms, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms8060877"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ballem, A., Gon\u00e7alves, S., Garcia-Meni\u00f1o, I., Flament-Simon, S.C., Blanco, J.E., Fernandes, C., Saavedra, M.J., Pinto, C., Oliveira, H., and Blanco, J. (2020). Prevalence and Serotypes of Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli (STEC) in Dairy Cattle from Northern Portugal. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0244713"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Habets, A., Engelen, F., Duprez, J.-N., Devleesschauwer, B., Heyndrickx, M., Zutter, L.D., Thiry, D., Cox, E., and Mainil, J. (2020). Identification of Shigatoxigenic and Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli Serotypes in Healthy Young Dairy Calves in Belgium by Recto-Anal Mucosal Swabbing. Vet. Sci., 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/vetsci7040167"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nada, H.G., El-Tahan, A.S., El-Didamony, G., and Askora, A. (2023). Detection of Multidrug-Resistant Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli in Some Food Products and Cattle Faeces in Al-Sharkia, Egypt: One Health Menace. BMC Microbiol., 23.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12866-023-02873-2"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.2147\/IDR.S388102","article-title":"Antimicrobial Profiles and Conventional PCR Assay of Shiga Toxigenic Escherichia coli O157:H7 (STEC) Isolated from Cattle Slaughtered at Bedele Municipal Abattoir, South West Ethiopia","volume":"16","author":"Fikadu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Infect. Drug Resist."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Irshad, H., Ahsan, A., Yousaf, A., Kanchanakhan, N., Pumpaibool, T., Siriwong, W., Prombutara, P., Ahmed, I., Basharat, Z., and Nawaz, M. (2024). Genetic Diversity and Zoonotic Potential of Shiga Toxin-Producing E. coli (STEC) in Cattle and Buffaloes from Islamabad, Pakistan. Agriculture, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture14091537"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1007\/s11274-024-04104-w","article-title":"Occurrence, Serotypes and Virulence Characteristics of Shiga Toxin-Producing and Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli Isolates from Dairy Cattle in South Africa","volume":"40","author":"Olawole","year":"2024","journal-title":"World J. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01384-21","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.01384-21","article-title":"Prevalence and Whole-Genome Sequence-Based Analysis of Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli Isolates from the Recto-Anal Junction of Slaughter-Age Irish Sheep","volume":"87","author":"McCarthy","year":"2021","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"lxad119","DOI":"10.1093\/jambio\/lxad119","article-title":"Virulence and Antimicrobial Resistance of Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli from Dairy Goat and Sheep Farms in The Netherlands","volume":"134","author":"Lee","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9778058","DOI":"10.1155\/ijm\/9778058","article-title":"Molecular Detection of Shiga Toxin\u2013Producing Escherichia coli O177 Isolates, Their Antibiotic Resistance, and Virulence Profiles from Broiler Chickens","volume":"2024","author":"Ramatla","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Malahlela, M.N., Cenci-Goga, B.T., Marufu, M.C., Fonkui, T.Y., Grispoldi, L., Etter, E., Kalake, A., and Karama, M. (2022). Occurrence, Serotypes and Virulence Characteristics of Shiga-Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli Isolates from Goats on Communal Rangeland in South Africa. Toxins, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins14050353"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al-Ajmi, D., Rahman, S., and Banu, S. (2020). Occurrence, Virulence Genes, and Antimicrobial Profiles of Escherichia coli O157 Isolated from Ruminants Slaughtered in Al Ain, United Arab Emirates. BMC Microbiol., 20.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12866-020-01899-0"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"420","DOI":"10.5455\/javar.2025.l908","article-title":"Antibiotic Resistance and Pathogenicity of Shiga-Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli (STEC) and Non-STEC Isolated from Goats in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam","volume":"12","author":"Nguyen","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Adv. Vet. Anim. Res."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elsayed, M.S.A.E., Eldsouky, S.M., Roshdy, T., Bayoume, A.M.A., Nasr, G.M., Salama, A.S.A., Akl, B.A., Hasan, A.S., Shahat, A.K., and Khashaba, R.A. (2021). Genetic and Antimicrobial Resistance Profiles of Non-O157 Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli from Different Sources in Egypt. BMC Microbiol., 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12866-021-02308-w"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"386","DOI":"10.1089\/fpd.2021.0062","article-title":"Presence and Virulence Characteristics of Shiga Toxin Escherichia coli and Non-Shiga Toxin\u2013Producing Escherichia coli O157 in Products from Animal Protein Supply Chain Enterprises in South Africa","volume":"19","author":"Madoroba","year":"2022","journal-title":"Foodborne Pathog. Dis."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3333240","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/3333240","article-title":"The Prevalence of Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli and Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli Isolated from Raw Chicken Meat Samples","volume":"2021","author":"Zarei","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"369","article-title":"Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Salmonella Species Isolated from Ducks and Indigenous Chickens in Live-Bird Markets in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria","volume":"58","author":"Kolapo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Vet. Ital."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3247","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-30333-4","article-title":"Whole Genome Sequence-Based Characterisation of Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli Isolated from Game Meat Originating from Several European Countries","volume":"13","author":"Treier","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Floris, I., Vannuccini, A., Ligotti, C., Musolino, N., Romano, A., Viani, A., Bianchi, D.M., Robetto, S., and Decastelli, L. (2024). Detection and Characterization of Zoonotic Pathogens in Game Meat Hunted in Northwestern Italy. Animals, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani14040562"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1287","DOI":"10.1292\/jvms.19-0265","article-title":"Surveillance of Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli and Campylobacter spp. in Wild Japanese Deer (Cervus nippon) and Boar (Sus scrofa)","volume":"82","author":"Tomino","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Vet. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1860","DOI":"10.1292\/jvms.21-0454","article-title":"Whole-Genome Sequence Analysis of Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli O157 Strains Isolated from Wild Deer and Boar in Japan","volume":"83","author":"Morita","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Vet. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mafizur, R.M., Sangjin, L., and Chul, P.Y. (2024). Prevalence of Salmonella spp. and Escherichia coli in the Feces of Free-Roaming Wildlife throughout South Korea. PLoS ONE, 19.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0281006"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1007\/s11033-023-08987-0","article-title":"Molecular Detection of Shiga Toxin and Extended-Spectrum Beta-Lactamase (ESBL)-Producing Escherichia coli Isolates from Sheep and Goats","volume":"51","author":"Ramatla","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2616","DOI":"10.1002\/vms3.935","article-title":"Occurrence of Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli Carrying Antimicrobial Resistance Genes in Sheep on Smallholdings in Bangladesh","volume":"8","author":"Gupta","year":"2022","journal-title":"Vet. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pavez-Mu\u00f1oz, E., Gonz\u00e1lez, C., Fern\u00e1ndez-Sanhueza, B., S\u00e1nchez, F., Escobar, B., Ramos, R., Fuenzalida, V., Galarce, N., Arriagada, G., and Neira, V. (2021). Antimicrobial Usage Factors and Resistance Profiles of Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli in Backyard Production Systems from Central Chile. Front. Vet. Sci., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2020.595149"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"709","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1106920","article-title":"Origins of the E. coli Strain Causing an Outbreak of Hemolytic\u2013Uremic Syndrome in Germany","volume":"365","author":"Rasko","year":"2011","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cortimiglia, C., Borney, M.F., Bassi, D., and Cocconcelli, P.S. (2021). Genomic Investigation of Virulence Potential in Shiga Toxin Escherichia coli (STEC) Strains from a Semi-Hard Raw Milk Cheese. Front. Microbiol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2020.629189"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"822","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00022-13","article-title":"Recent Advances in Understanding Enteric Pathogenic Escherichia coli","volume":"26","author":"Croxen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pan, Y., Hu, B., Bai, X., Yang, X., Cao, L., Liu, Q., Sun, H., Li, J., Zhang, J., and Jin, D. (2021). Antimicrobial Resistance of Non-O157 Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli Isolated from Humans and Domestic Animals. Antibiotics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics10010074"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"001375","DOI":"10.1099\/jmm.0.001375","article-title":"The Emerging Importance of Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli Other than Serogroup O157 in England","volume":"70","author":"Vishram","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"1073","article-title":"Shiga-Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli and Haemolytic Uraemic Syndrome","volume":"365","author":"Tarr","year":"2005","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1181","DOI":"10.1099\/jmm.0.075895-0","article-title":"Epidemiology and Microbiology of Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli Other than Serogroup O157 in England, 2009\u20132013","volume":"63","author":"Byrne","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alharbi, M.G., Al-Hindi, R.R., Esmael, A., Alotibi, I.A., Azhari, S.A., Alseghayer, M.S., and Teklemariam, A.D. (2022). The \u201cBig Six\u201d: Hidden Emerging Foodborne Bacterial Pathogens. Trop. Med. Infect. Dis., 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/tropicalmed7110356"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2020","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.02591-06","article-title":"Subtyping Method for Escherichia coli Shiga Toxin (Verocytotoxin) 2 Variants and Correlations to Clinical Manifestations","volume":"45","author":"Persson","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Melton-Celsa, A.R. (2014). Shiga Toxin (Stx) Classification, Structure, and Function. Microbiol. Spectr., 2.","DOI":"10.1128\/microbiolspec.EHEC-0024-2013"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"598","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.36.2.598-602.1998","article-title":"Detection and Characterization of Shiga Toxigenic Escherichia coli by Using Multiplex PCR Assays Forstx1, Stx2, eaeA, Enterohemorrhagic E. coli hlyA, rfbO111, and rfbO157","volume":"36","author":"Paton","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Franz, E., van Hoek, A.H.A.M., Wuite, M., van der Wal, F.J., de Boer, A.G., Bouw, E.I., and Aarts, H.J.M. (2015). Molecular Hazard Identification of Non-O157 Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli (STEC). PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0120353"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01231-17","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.01231-17","article-title":"Shiga Toxin-Producing Serogroup O91 Escherichia coli Strains Isolated from Food and Environmental Samples","volume":"83","author":"Feng","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), and European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) (2026). The European Union Summary Report on Antimicrobial Resistance in Zoonotic and Indicator Bacteria from Humans, Animals and Food in 2023\u20132024. EFSA J., 24, e9887.","DOI":"10.2903\/j.efsa.2026.9887"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"576","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.68.2.576-581.2002","article-title":"Antimicrobial Resistance of Escherichia coli O157 Isolated from Humans, Cattle, Swine, and Food","volume":"68","author":"Schroeder","year":"2002","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ajulo, S., and Awosile, B. (2024). Global Antimicrobial Resistance and Use Surveillance System (GLASS 2022): Investigating the Relationship between Antimicrobial Resistance and Antimicrobial Consumption Data across the Participating Countries. PLoS ONE, 19.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0297921"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dki171","article-title":"Efflux-Mediated Antimicrobial Resistance","volume":"56","author":"Poole","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Menge, C. (2020). The Role of Escherichia coli Shiga Toxins in STEC Colonization of Cattle. Toxins, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins12090607"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01864-24","DOI":"10.1128\/aem.01864-24","article-title":"Ruminant-Dense Environments Increase Risk of Reported Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli Infections Independently of Ruminant Contact","volume":"91","author":"Ward","year":"2025","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."}],"container-title":["Antibiotics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6382\/15\/9\/891\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,11]],"date-time":"2026-09-11T08:54:15Z","timestamp":1789116855000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6382\/15\/9\/891"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,11]]},"references-count":57,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["antibiotics15090891"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/antibiotics15090891","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-6382"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-6382","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,11]]}}}