{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T04:25:30Z","timestamp":1760243130121,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":73,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2015,9,24]],"date-time":"2015-09-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1443052800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"None"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Antibiotics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) is a potentially fatal illness, especially in the elderly and hospitalized individuals. The recurrence and rates of CDI are increasing.  In addition, some cases of CDI are refractory to the currently available antibiotics. The search for improved modalities for the management of primary and recurrent CDI is underway. This review discusses the current antibiotics, fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) and other options such as immunotherapy and administration of non-toxigenic Clostridium difficile (CD) for the management of both primary and recurrent CDI.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics4040411","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,9,24]],"date-time":"2015-09-24T10:51:07Z","timestamp":1443091867000},"page":"411-423","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["A Review of Management of Clostridium difficile Infection: Primary and Recurrence"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"4","author":[{"given":"Yasmeen","family":"Vincent","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"St. Joseph's Healthcare Hamilton, 50 Charlton Ave. East, Hamilton, ON L8N 4A6, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Arif","family":"Manji","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"St. Joseph's Healthcare Hamilton, 50 Charlton Ave. East, Hamilton, ON L8N 4A6, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kathleen","family":"Gregory-Miller","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"St. Joseph's Healthcare Hamilton, 50 Charlton Ave. East, Hamilton, ON L8N 4A6, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Christine","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"St. Joseph's Healthcare Hamilton, 50 Charlton Ave. East, Hamilton, ON L8N 4A6, Canada"},{"name":"Hamilton Regional Laboratory Medicine Program, Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, McMaster University, 1280 Main St. West, Hamilton, ON L8S 4L8, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,9,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1205.051064","article-title":"Clostridium difficile infection in patients discharged from US short-stay hospitals, 1996\u20132003","volume":"12","author":"McDonald","year":"2006","journal-title":"Emerg. 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