{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,2]],"date-time":"2026-11-02T01:26:22Z","timestamp":1793582782990,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":224,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,3]],"date-time":"2020-02-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1580688000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Antibiotics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Recognition of the fact that bacterial biofilm may play a role in the pathogenesis of disease has led to an increased focus on identifying diseases that may be biofilm-related. Biofilm infections are typically chronic in nature, as biofilm-residing bacteria can be resilient to both the immune system, antibiotics, and other treatments. This is a comprehensive review describing biofilm diseases in the auditory, the cardiovascular, the digestive, the integumentary, the reproductive, the respiratory, and the urinary system. In most cases reviewed, the biofilms were identified through various imaging technics, in addition to other study approaches. The current knowledge on how biofilm may contribute to the pathogenesis of disease indicates a number of different mechanisms. This spans from biofilm being a mere reservoir of pathogenic bacteria, to playing a more active role, e.g., by contributing to inflammation. Observations also indicate that biofilm does not exclusively occur extracellularly, but may also be formed inside living cells. Furthermore, the presence of biofilm may contribute to development of cancer. In conclusion, this review shows that biofilm is part of many, probably most chronic infections. This is important knowledge for development of effective treatment strategies for such infections.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics9020059","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,3]],"date-time":"2020-02-03T11:28:31Z","timestamp":1580729311000},"page":"59","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1009,"title":["Bacterial Biofilm and its Role in the Pathogenesis of Disease"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5387-130X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lene K.","family":"Vestby","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Immunology and Virology, Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 750 Sentrum, N-0106 Oslo, Norway"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Torstein","family":"Gr\u00f8nseth","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Oslo University Hospital HF, Postboks 4950 Nydalen, 0424 Oslo, Norway"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5187-2456","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roger","family":"Simm","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Oral Biology, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1052, Blindern, 0316 Oslo, Norway"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Live L.","family":"Nesse","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Food Safety and Animal Health Research, Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 750 Sentrum, N-0106 Oslo, Norway"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.1111\/apm.12686","article-title":"A short history of microbial biofilms and biofilm infections","volume":"125","year":"2017","journal-title":"APMIS"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1318","DOI":"10.1126\/science.284.5418.1318","article-title":"Bacterial biofilms: A common cause of persistent infections","volume":"284","author":"Costerton","year":"1999","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1034","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1462-5822.2009.01323.x","article-title":"Evolving concepts in biofilm infections","volume":"11","author":"Stoodley","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cell. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/apm.12099","article-title":"The role of bacterial biofilms in chronic infections","volume":"121","author":"Bjarnsholt","year":"2013","journal-title":"APMIS"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.15.2.167-193.2002","article-title":"Biofilms: Survival Mechanisms of Clinically Relevant Microorganisms","volume":"15","author":"Donlan","year":"2002","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"320","DOI":"10.1111\/apm.12674","article-title":"\u00d8strup Biofilms and host response-helpful or harmful","volume":"125","author":"Moser","year":"2017","journal-title":"APMIS"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"514","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.112.3.514","article-title":"Trends in otitis media among children in the United States","volume":"112","author":"Auinger","year":"2003","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijporl.2016.03.032","article-title":"Epidemiology of otitis media in children from developing countries: A systematic review","volume":"85","author":"DeAntonio","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Pediatr. Otorhinolaryngol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"465","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(04)15495-0","article-title":"Otitis media","volume":"363","author":"Rovers","year":"2004","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schilder, A.G., Chonmaitree, T., Cripps, A.W., Rosenfeld, R.M., Casselbrant, M.L., Haggard, M.P., and Venekamp, R.P. (2016). Otitis media. Nat. Rev. Dis. Primers.","DOI":"10.1038\/nrdp.2016.63"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Monasta, L., Ronfani, L., Marchetti, F., Montico, M., Brumatti, L.V., Bavcar, A., Grasso, D., Barbiero, C., and Tamburlini, G. (2012). Burden of Disease Caused by Otitis Media: Systematic Review and Global Estimates. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0036226"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chonmaitree, T., Trujillo, R., Jennings, K., Alvarez-Fernandez, P., Patel, J.A., Loeffelholz, M.J., Nokso-Koivisto, J., Matalon, R., Pyles, R.B., and Miller, A.L. (2016). Acute Otitis Media and Other Complications of Viral Respiratory Infection. Pediatrics, 137.","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2015-3555"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1440","DOI":"10.1086\/516477","article-title":"Relationship between Nasopharyngeal Colonization and the Development of Otitis Media in Children","volume":"175","author":"Faden","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1097\/00006454-198203000-00007","article-title":"The bacteriology and cytology of chronic otitis media with effusion","volume":"1","author":"Giebink","year":"1982","journal-title":"Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/0165-5876(93)90127-O","article-title":"Detection of Haemophilus influenzae in middle ear of otitis media with effusion by polymerase chain reaction","volume":"27","author":"Hotomi","year":"1993","journal-title":"Int. J. Pediatr. Otorhinolaryngol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1598","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1995.03520440052036","article-title":"Molecular analysis of bacterial pathogens in otitis media with effusion","volume":"273","author":"Post","year":"1995","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2273.2004.00767.x","article-title":"Is otitis media with effusion a biofilm infection?","volume":"29","author":"Fergie","year":"2004","journal-title":"Clin. Otolaryngol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1710","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.287.13.1710","article-title":"Mucosal Biofilm Formation on Middle-Ear Mucosa in the Chinchilla Model of Otitis Media","volume":"287","author":"Ehrlich","year":"2002","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hall-Stoodley, L., Hu, F.Z., Gieseke, A., Nistico, L., Nguyen, D., Hayes, J., Forbes, M., Greenberg, D.P., Dice, B., and Burrows, A. (2006). Direct detection of bacterial biofilms on the middle-ear mucosa of children with chronic otitis media. JAMA.","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.296.2.202"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2083","DOI":"10.1097\/00005537-200112000-00001","article-title":"Candidate\u2019s Thesis: Direct Evidence of Bacterial Biofilms in Otitis Media","volume":"111","author":"Post","year":"2001","journal-title":"Laryngoscope"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1416","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijporl.2012.06.013","article-title":"Bacterial involvement in otitis media with effusion","volume":"76","author":"Daniel","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Pediatr. Otorhinolaryngol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3553","DOI":"10.1007\/s00405-016-3958-9","article-title":"Haemophilus influenzae biofilm formation in chronic otitis media with effusion","volume":"273","author":"Lambert","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur. Arch. Oto-Rhino-Laryngol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1411","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.00756-10","article-title":"Adenoid Reservoir for Pathogenic Biofilm Bacteria","volume":"49","author":"Nistico","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1097\/MLG.0b013e318155a464","article-title":"Characterization of Mucosal Biofilms on Human Adenoid Tissues","volume":"118","author":"Kania","year":"2008","journal-title":"Laryngoscope"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Coticchia, J.M., Chen, M., Sachdeva, L., and Mutchnick, S. (2013). New Paradigms in the Pathogenesis of Otitis Media in Children. Front. Pediatr., 1.","DOI":"10.3389\/fped.2013.00052"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1841","DOI":"10.1099\/jmm.0.034041-0","article-title":"Phylogenetic relatedness and diversity of non-typable Haemophilus influenzae in the nasopharynx and middle ear fluid of children with acute otitis media","volume":"60","author":"Kaur","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Galli, J., Calo, L., Giuliani, M., Sergi, B., Lucidi, D., Meucci, D., Bassotti, E., Sanguinetti, M., and Paludetti, G. (2016). Biofilm\u2019s role in chronic cholesteatomatous otitis media: A pilot study. Otolaryngol.-Head Neck Surg.","DOI":"10.1177\/0194599816630548"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/638715","article-title":"Investigation of the Presence of Biofilms in Chronic Suppurative Otitis Media, Nonsuppurative Otitis Media, and Chronic Otitis Media with Cholesteatoma by Scanning Electron Microscopy","volume":"2013","author":"Kaya","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sci. World J."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"785","DOI":"10.1097\/MAO.0b013e318259533f","article-title":"Mastoid Biofilm in Chronic Otitis Media","volume":"33","author":"Lampikoski","year":"2012","journal-title":"Otol. Neurotol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjoto.2009.09.010","article-title":"Biofilms in chronic suppurative otitis media and cholesteatoma: Scanning electron microscopy findings","volume":"32","author":"Saunders","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Otolaryngol."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"1","article-title":"Updates and Knowledge Gaps in Cholesteatoma Research","volume":"2015","author":"Kuo","year":"2015","journal-title":"BioMed Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022215109992763","article-title":"Acquired cholesteatoma pathogenesis: Stepwise explanations","volume":"124","author":"Louw","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Laryngol. Otol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.1177\/000348940911800410","article-title":"Demonstration of Nasopharyngeal and Middle Ear Mucosal Biofilms in an Animal Model of Acute Otitis Media","volume":"118","author":"Hoa","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ann. Otol. Rhinol. Laryngol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1129","DOI":"10.1001\/archotol.128.10.1129","article-title":"Evidence for microbial biofilms in cholesteatomas","volume":"128","author":"Chole","year":"2002","journal-title":"Arch. Otolaryngol.-Head Neck Surg."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gu, X., Keyoumu, Y., Long, L., and Zhang, H. (2014). Detection of bacterial biofilms in different types of chronic otitis media. Eur. Arch. Otorhinolaryngol.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00405-013-2766-8"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijporl.2005.08.021","article-title":"Chronic suppurative otitis media: A review","volume":"70","author":"Verhoeff","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Pediatr. Otorhinolaryngol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1103","DOI":"10.1099\/jmm.0.000155","article-title":"Current concepts in the pathogenesis and treatment of chronic suppurative otitis media","volume":"64","author":"Mittal","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"567","DOI":"10.1016\/j.otohns.2009.08.010","article-title":"Biofilm presence in humans with chronic suppurative otitis media","volume":"141","author":"Lee","year":"2009","journal-title":"Otolaryngol. Neck Surg."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijporl.2015.01.003","article-title":"Do orally administered antibiotics reach concentrations in the middle ear sufficient to eradicate planktonic and biofilm bacteria? A review","volume":"79","author":"Belfield","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Pediatr. Otorhinolaryngol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1251","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.107.6.1251","article-title":"Otorrhea in young children after tympanostomy-tube placement for persistent middle-ear effusion: Prevalence, incidence, and duration","volume":"107","author":"Paradise","year":"2001","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rosenfeld, R.M., Schwartz, S.R., Pynnonen, M.A., Tunkel, D.E., Hussey, H.M., Fichera, J.S., Grimes, A.M., Hackell, J.M., Harrison, M.F., and Haskell, H. (2013). Clinical practice guideline: Tympanostomy tubes in children. Otolaryngol.-Head Neck Surg.","DOI":"10.1177\/0194599813487302"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"374","DOI":"10.1067\/mhn.2001.113941","article-title":"Meta-analysis of tympanostomy tube sequelae","volume":"124","author":"Kay","year":"2001","journal-title":"Otolaryngol. Neck Surg."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.otohns.2005.10.017","article-title":"Opening Plugged Tympanostomy Tubes: Effect of Biofilm Formation","volume":"134","author":"Mehta","year":"2006","journal-title":"Otolaryngol.-Head Neck Surg."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"621","DOI":"10.1053\/hn.1999.v120.a94162","article-title":"In Vivo Resistance to Bacterial Biofilm Formation on Tympanostomy Tubes as a Function of Tube Material","volume":"120","author":"Saidi","year":"1999","journal-title":"Otolaryngol.-Head Neck Surg."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1946","DOI":"10.1002\/lary.25826","article-title":"Identification of biofilms in post-tympanostomy tube otorrhea","volume":"126","author":"Idicula","year":"2016","journal-title":"Laryngoscope"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cunningham, M.J., Eavey, R.D., Krouse, J.H., and Kiskaddon, R.M. (1993). Tympanostomy tubes: Experience with removal. Laryngoscope.","DOI":"10.1288\/00005537-199306000-00014"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dohar, J., Giles, W., Roland, P., Bikhazi, N., Carroll, S., Moe, R., Reese, B., Dupre, S., Wall, M., and Stroman, D. (2006). Topical Ciprofloxacin\/Dexamethasone Superior to Oral Amoxicillin\/Clavulanic Acid in Acute Otitis Media with Otorrhea Through Tympanostomy Tubes. Pediatrics, 118.","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2005-2033"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"677","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.micro.57.030502.090720","article-title":"Bacterial Biofilms: An Emerging Link to Disease Pathogenesis","volume":"57","author":"Parsek","year":"2003","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1053\/j.semtcvs.2015.12.005","article-title":"Current Hypotheses in Cardiac Surgery: Biofilm in Infective Endocarditis","volume":"28","author":"Elgharably","year":"2016","journal-title":"Semin. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg."},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"275","article-title":"Ultrastructure of cardiac bacterial vegetations on native valves with emphasis on alterations in bacterial morphology following antibiotic treatment","volume":"3","author":"Marrie","year":"1987","journal-title":"Can. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1686","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajem.2018.06.074","article-title":"Infectious endocarditis: An update for emergency clinicians","volume":"36","author":"Long","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Emerg. Med."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"657","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.92.3.657","article-title":"Coronary Plaque Disruption","volume":"92","author":"Falk","year":"1995","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-0691.2007.01798.x","article-title":"Relationship between periodontal infections and systemic disease","volume":"13","author":"Seymour","year":"2007","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S16","DOI":"10.12968\/jowc.2016.25.Sup2.S16","article-title":"The presence of biofilm structures in atherosclerotic plaques of arteries from legs amputated as a complication of diabetic foot ulcers","volume":"25","author":"Snow","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Wound Care"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lanter, B.B., Sauer, K., and Davies, D.G. (2014). Bacteria Present in Carotid Arterial Plaques Are Found as Biofilm Deposits Which May Contribute to Enhanced Risk of Plaque Rupture. mBio, 5.","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.01206-14"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1080\/00016480252814252","article-title":"Bacteria and pathogenesis of human salivary calculus","volume":"122","author":"Teymoortash","year":"2002","journal-title":"Acta Oto-Laryngol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022215118000646","article-title":"Morphological evidence of biofilm in chronic obstructive sialadenitis","volume":"132","author":"Eickhardt","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Laryngol. Otol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1002\/lary.27860","article-title":"Evidence of a microbial etiology for sialoliths","volume":"130","author":"Kao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Laryngoscope"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fusconi, M., Petrozza, V., Schippa, S., de Vincentiis, M., Familiari, G., Pantanella, F., Cirenza, M., Iebba, V., Battaglione, E., and Greco, A. (2016). Bacterial biofilm in salivary gland stones: Cause or consequence?. Otolaryngol.-Head Neck Surg.","DOI":"10.1177\/0194599815622425"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1815","DOI":"10.1007\/s00405-019-05445-1","article-title":"Bacterial biofilm in salivary stones","volume":"276","author":"Aarnisalo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. Arch. Oto-Rhino-Laryngol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1097\/00005792-198709000-00003","article-title":"Extra-Intestinal Manifestations of Salmonella Infections","volume":"66","author":"Cohen","year":"1987","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1007\/s11894-003-0064-0","article-title":"Current trends in typhoid Fever","volume":"5","author":"Crum","year":"2003","journal-title":"Curr. Gastroenterol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_63","first-page":"346","article-title":"The global burden of typhoid fever","volume":"82","author":"Crump","year":"2004","journal-title":"Bull. World Heal. Organ."},{"key":"ref_64","first-page":"1198","article-title":"Common bile duct stones: A cause of chronic salmonellosis","volume":"87","author":"Lai","year":"1992","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"784","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1572-0241.2000.01860.x","article-title":"Typhoid carriers among patients with gallstones are at increased risk for carcinoma of the gallbladder","volume":"95","author":"Dutta","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"724","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/146.6.724","article-title":"Precise Estimation of the Numbers of Chronic Carriers of Salmonella typhi in Santiago, Chile, an Endemic Area","volume":"146","author":"Levine","year":"1982","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_67","first-page":"898","article-title":"surgical presentation of hepatobiliary disease due to salmonella typhi","volume":"65","author":"Gosbell","year":"1995","journal-title":"ANZ J. Surg."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"976","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(87)90319-9","article-title":"Persistent gallbladder carriage of salmonella typhi","volume":"329","author":"Sinnott","year":"1987","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1348-0421.2005.tb03709.x","article-title":"Epidemiology of typhoid carriers among blood donors and patients with biliary, gastrointestinal and other related diseases","volume":"49","author":"Vaishnavi","year":"2005","journal-title":"Microbiol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-9343(69)90149-1","article-title":"The treatment of chronic biliary Salmonella carriers","volume":"47","author":"Dinbar","year":"1969","journal-title":"Am. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gonzalez-Escobedo, G., Marshall, J.M., and Gunn, J.S. (2011). Chronic and acute infection of the gall bladder by salmonella typhi: Understanding the carrier state. Nat. Rev. Microbiol.","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro2490"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2920","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.00258-13","article-title":"Gallbladder Epithelium as a Niche for Chronic Salmonella Carriage","volume":"81","author":"Gunn","year":"2013","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4353","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1000862107","article-title":"Gallstones play a significant role in Salmonella spp. gallbladder colonization and carriage","volume":"107","author":"Crawford","year":"2010","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2640","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.70.5.2640-2649.2002","article-title":"Biofilm Formation and Interaction with the Surfaces of Gallstones by Salmonella spp.","volume":"70","author":"Prouty","year":"2002","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marshall, J.M., Flechtner, A.D., La Perle, K.M., and Gunn, J.S. (2014). Visualization of Extracellular Matrix Components within Sectioned Salmonella Biofilms on the Surface of Human Gallstones. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0089243"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gonz\u00e1lez, J.F., Kurtz, J., Bauer, D.L., Hitt, R., Fitch, J., Wetzel, A., La Perle, K., White, P., McLachlan, J., and Gunn, J.S. (2019). Establishment of Chronic Typhoid Infection in a Mouse Carriage Model Involves a Type 2 Immune Shift and T and B Cell Recruitment to the Gallbladder. mBio, 10.","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.02262-19"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Neiger, M.R., Gonz\u00e1lez, J.F., Gonzalez-Escobedo, G., Kuck, H., White, P., and Gunn, J.S. (2019). Pathoadaptive Alteration of Salmonella Biofilm Formation in Response to the Gallbladder Environment. J. Bacteriol.","DOI":"10.1128\/JB.00774-18"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gonz\u00e1lez, J.F., Tucker, L., Fitch, J., Wetzel, A., White, P., and Gunn, J.S. (2019). Human Bile-Mediated Regulation of Salmonella Curli Fimbriae. J. Bacteriol., 201.","DOI":"10.1128\/JB.00055-19"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dongol, S., Thompson, C.N., Clare, S., Nga, T.V.T., Duy, P.T., Karkey, A., Arjyal, A., Koirala, S., Khatri, N.S., and Maskey, P. (2012). The Microbiological and Clinical Characteristics of Invasive Salmonella in Gallbladders from Cholecystectomy Patients in Kathmandu, Nepal. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0047342"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"648","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tim.2014.06.007","article-title":"Salmonella chronic carriage: Epidemiology, diagnosis, and gallbladder persistence","volume":"22","author":"Gunn","year":"2014","journal-title":"Trends Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-18516-2","article-title":"Biofilm Formation Protects Salmonella from the Antibiotic Ciprofloxacin In Vitro and In Vivo in the Mouse Model of chronic Carriage","volume":"8","author":"Alberts","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01967008","article-title":"Fluoroquinolones in the treatment of typhoid fever and the carrier state","volume":"10","author":"Trujillo","year":"1991","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1235","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/157.6.1235","article-title":"Efficacy of Ciprofloxacin in the Treatment of Chronic Typhoid Carriers","volume":"157","author":"Ferreccio","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2015.1121363","article-title":"Do biofilms confer a pro-carcinogenic state?","volume":"7","author":"Dejea","year":"2016","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molmed.2016.11.004","article-title":"Bacterial Biofilms in Colorectal Cancer Initiation and Progression","volume":"23","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"Trends Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1111\/2049-632X.12020","article-title":"Microbial biofilms and gastrointestinal diseases","volume":"67","author":"Macfarlane","year":"2013","journal-title":"Pathog. Dis."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9872","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v20.i29.9872","article-title":"Colorectal cancer in inflammatory bowel disease: The risk, pathogenesis, prevention and diagnosis","volume":"20","author":"Kim","year":"2014","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_88","first-page":"61","article-title":"Mucosal flora in Crohn\u2019s disease and ulcerative colitis\u2014An overview","volume":"60","author":"Swidsinski","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Physiol. Pharmacol. Off. J. Pol. Physiol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3380","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.43.7.3380-3389.2005","article-title":"Spatial Organization and Composition of the Mucosal Flora in Patients with Inflammatory Bowel Disease","volume":"43","author":"Swidsinski","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2004.03.054","article-title":"Enhanced Escherichia coli adherence and invasion in Crohn\u2019s disease and colon cancer 1","volume":"127","author":"Martin","year":"2004","journal-title":"Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ferlay, J., Soerjomataram, I., Dikshit, R., Eser, S., Mathers, C., Rebelo, M., Parkin, D.M., Forman, D., and Bray, F. (2015). Cancer incidence and mortality worldwide: Sources, methods and major patterns in globocan 2012. Int. J. Cancer.","DOI":"10.1002\/ijc.29210"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"759","DOI":"10.1016\/0092-8674(90)90186-I","article-title":"A genetic model for colorectal tumorigenesis","volume":"61","author":"Fearon","year":"1990","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_93","first-page":"659","article-title":"Role of colonic microbiota in colorectal carcinogenesis: A systematic review","volume":"107","author":"Canha","year":"2015","journal-title":"Rev. Espa\u00f1ola Enferm. Dig."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.smim.2017.04.003","article-title":"Microbiome and colorectal cancer: Unraveling host-microbiota interactions in colitis-associated colorectal cancer development","volume":"32","author":"Kang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Semin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"575","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro2819","article-title":"A bacterial driver\u2013passenger model for colorectal cancer: Beyond the usual suspects","volume":"10","author":"Tjalsma","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Genet."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4166","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI72334","article-title":"Bacteroides fragilis subverts mucosal biology: From symbiont to colon carcinogenesis","volume":"124","author":"Sears","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"592","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aah3648","article-title":"Patients with familial adenomatous polyposis harbor colonic biofilms containing tumorigenic bacteria","volume":"359","author":"Dejea","year":"2018","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kohoutov\u00e1, D., \u0160majs, D., Mor\u00e1vkov\u00e1, P., Cyrany, J., Moravkova, M., Forstlova, M., Cihak, M., Rejchrt, S., and Bure\u0161, J. (2014). Escherichia coli strains of phylogenetic group B2 and D and bacteriocin production are associated with advanced colorectal neoplasia. BMC Infect. Dis., 14.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-014-0733-7"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2013.07.007","article-title":"Fusobacterium nucleatum potentiates intestinal tumorigenesis and modulates the tumor-immune microenvironment","volume":"14","author":"Kostic","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1443","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aal5240","article-title":"Analysis ofFusobacteriumpersistence and antibiotic response in colorectal cancer","volume":"358","author":"Bullman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1038\/s41575-019-0148-4","article-title":"Gut microbial biofilm composition and organisation holds the key to CRC","volume":"16","author":"Hold","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18321","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1406199111","article-title":"Microbiota organization is a distinct feature of proximal colorectal cancers","volume":"111","author":"Dejea","year":"2014","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"280","DOI":"10.3393\/ac.2018.12.17","article-title":"Differences Regarding the Molecular Features and Gut Microbiota Between Right and Left Colon Cancer","volume":"34","author":"Kim","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann. Coloproctol."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1699","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI124196","article-title":"Human colon mucosal biofilms from healthy or colon cancer hosts are carcinogenic","volume":"130","author":"Tomkovich","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1318","DOI":"10.1002\/ijc.30168","article-title":"InvasiveFusobacterium nucleatummay play a role in the carcinogenesis of proximal colon cancer through the serrated neoplasia pathway","volume":"139","author":"Yu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/7585486","article-title":"Efficacy of Using Probiotics with Antagonistic Activity against Pathogens of Wound Infections: An Integrative Review of Literature","volume":"2019","author":"Fijan","year":"2019","journal-title":"BioMed Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_107","unstructured":"World Union of Wound Healing Societies (2008). Principles of Best Practice: Wound Infection in Clinical Practice. An International Consensus, World Union of Wound Healing Societies. Available online: https:\/\/www.mepltd.co.uk."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1524-475X.2012.00836.x","article-title":"A review of the scientific evidence for biofilms in wounds","volume":"20","author":"Percival","year":"2012","journal-title":"Wound Repair Regen."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1524-475x.2001.00332.x","article-title":"Use of molecular techniques to study microbial diversity in the skin: Chronic wounds reevaluated","volume":"9","author":"Bsc","year":"2001","journal-title":"Wound Repair Regen."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1833","DOI":"10.1111\/jam.12191","article-title":"Biofilm inhibitory and eradicating activity of wound care products againstStaphylococcus aureusandStaphylococcus epidermidisbiofilms in anin vitrochronic wound model","volume":"114","author":"Brackman","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1524-475X.2007.00321.x","article-title":"Biofilms in chronic wounds","volume":"16","author":"James","year":"2008","journal-title":"Wound Repair Regen."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1524-475X.2007.00303.x","article-title":"Microscopic and physiologic evidence for biofilm-associated wound colonization in vivo","volume":"16","author":"Davis","year":"2008","journal-title":"Wound Repair Regen."},{"key":"ref_113","first-page":"631","article-title":"A wound-isolated pseudomonas aeruginosa grows a biofilm in vitro within 10 h and is visualized by light microscopy","volume":"29","author":"Cazzaniga","year":"2003","journal-title":"Dermatol. Surg."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"s4","DOI":"10.12968\/jowc.2019.28.Sup3b.S4","article-title":"Clinical indicators of wound infection and biofilm: Reaching international consensus","volume":"28","author":"Haesler","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Wound Care"},{"key":"ref_115","first-page":"1","article-title":"Etiology of bacterial vaginosis and polymicrobial biofilm formation","volume":"210","author":"Jung","year":"2017","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Machado, D., Castro, J., Palmeira-de-Oliveira, A., Martinez-de-Oliveira, J., and Cerca, N. (2015). Bacterial vaginosis biofilms: Challenges to current therapies and emerging solutions. Front. Microbiol.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2015.01528"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-9343(83)91112-9","article-title":"Nonspecific vaginitis","volume":"74","author":"Amsel","year":"1983","journal-title":"Am. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1013","DOI":"10.1097\/01.AOG.0000183594.45524.d2","article-title":"Adherent Biofilms in Bacterial Vaginosis","volume":"106","author":"Swidsinski","year":"2005","journal-title":"Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1856","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiv338","article-title":"The influence of biofilm formation by Gardnerella vaginalis and other anaerobes on bacterial vaginosis","volume":"212","author":"Machado","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1097\/QCO.0000000000000516","article-title":"The biofilm in bacterial vaginosis: Implications for epidemiology, diagnosis and treatment: 2018 update","volume":"32","author":"Verstraelen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1159\/000314015","article-title":"Gardnerella Biofilm Involves Females and Males and Is Transmitted Sexually","volume":"70","author":"Swidsinski","year":"2010","journal-title":"Gynecol. Obstet. Investig."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11640","DOI":"10.1038\/srep11640","article-title":"Using an in-vitro biofilm model to assess the virulence potential of Bacterial Vaginosis or non-Bacterial Vaginosis Gardnerella vaginalis isolates","volume":"5","author":"Castro","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1038\/s41522-017-0012-7","article-title":"Comparative transcriptomic analysis of Gardnerella vaginalis biofilms vs. planktonic cultures using RNA-seq","volume":"3","author":"Castro","year":"2017","journal-title":"NPJ Biofilm. Microbiomes"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1306","DOI":"10.1038\/s41396-018-0337-0","article-title":"Unveiling the role of Gardnerella vaginalis in polymicrobial Bacterial Vaginosis biofilms: The impact of other vaginal pathogens living as neighbors","volume":"13","author":"Castro","year":"2019","journal-title":"ISME J."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fertnstert.2017.05.034","article-title":"Endometrial microbiota\u2014New player in town","volume":"108","author":"Moreno","year":"2017","journal-title":"Fertil. Steril."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mitchell, C.M., Haick, A., Nkwopara, E., Garcia, R., Rendi, M., Agnew, K., Fredricks, D.N., and Eschenbach, D. (2015). Colonization of the upper genital tract by vaginal bacterial species in nonpregnant women. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2014.11.043"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"684","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2016.09.075","article-title":"Evidence that the endometrial microbiota has an effect on implantation success or failure","volume":"215","author":"Moreno","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1159\/000223819","article-title":"Poor Reliability of Vaginal and Endocervical Cultures for Evaluating Microbiology of Endometrial Cavity in Women with Chronic Endometritis","volume":"68","author":"Cicinelli","year":"2009","journal-title":"Gynecol. Obstet. Investig."},{"key":"ref_129","first-page":"176","article-title":"Chronic endometritis: Morphologic and clinical observations","volume":"58","author":"Greenwood","year":"1981","journal-title":"Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Swidsinski, A., Verstraelen, H., Loening-Baucke, V., Swidsinski, S., Mendling, W., and Halwani, Z. (2013). Presence of a Polymicrobial Endometrial Biofilm in Patients with Bacterial Vaginosis. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0053997"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2005.08.005","article-title":"Making sense of equine uterine infections: The many faces of physical clearance","volume":"172","author":"Causey","year":"2006","journal-title":"Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1016\/j.theriogenology.2007.05.050","article-title":"Relationships between uterine culture, cytology and pregnancy rates in a Thoroughbred practice","volume":"68","author":"Riddle","year":"2007","journal-title":"Theriogenology"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"631","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.02861-15","article-title":"In Vitro Efficacy of Nonantibiotic Treatments on Biofilm Disruption of Gram-Negative Pathogens and an In Vivo Model of Infectious Endometritis Utilizing Isolates from the Equine Uterus","volume":"54","author":"Ferris","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ferris, R.A., McCue, P.M., Borlee, G.I., Glapa, K.E., Martin, K.H., Mangalea, M.R., Hennet, M.L., Wolfe, L.M., Broeckling, C.D., and Borlee, B.R. (2017). Model of Chronic Equine Endometritis Involving a Pseudomonas aeruginosa Biofilm. Infect. Immun., 85.","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.00332-17"},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jahanfar, S., Ng, C.J., and Teng, C.L. (2013). Antibiotics for mastitis in breastfeeding women. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev.","DOI":"10.1002\/14651858.CD005458.pub3"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1080\/01652176.2007.9695224","article-title":"Economic effects of bovine mastitis and mastitis management: A review","volume":"29","author":"Halasa","year":"2007","journal-title":"Vet. Q."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1021","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.S0022-0302(96)76454-8","article-title":"Staphylococcus aureus Invasion of Bovine Mammary Epithelial Cells","volume":"79","author":"Almeida","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1080\/01652176.2002.9695135","article-title":"Factors involved in the early pathogenesis of bovineStaphylococcus aureusmastitis with emphasis on bacterial adhesion and invasion. A review","volume":"24","author":"Dego","year":"2002","journal-title":"Vet. Q."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1966","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.S0022-0302(00)75073-9","article-title":"Location of staphylococcus aureus within the experimentally infected bovine udder and the expression of capsular polysaccharide type 5 in situ","volume":"83","author":"Hensen","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"787","DOI":"10.1515\/pjvs-2015-0102","article-title":"Biofilm-formation by Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis isolates from subclinical mastitis in conditions mimicking the udder environment","volume":"18","author":"Seixas","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pol. J. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6129","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2014-8344","article-title":"Short communication: Effects of lactose and milk on the expression of biofilm-associated genes in Staphylococcus aureus strains isolated from a dairy cow with mastitis","volume":"97","author":"Xue","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2012-5795","article-title":"Characterization of the ability of coagulase-negative staphylococci isolated from the milk of Canadian farms to form biofilms","volume":"96","author":"Tremblay","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"344","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2012.02.031","article-title":"Is the biofilm formation and slime producing ability of coagulase-negative staphylococci associated with the persistence and severity of intramammary infection?","volume":"158","author":"Simojoki","year":"2012","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2007.08.018","article-title":"Evaluation of the presence of the bap gene in Staphylococcus aureus isolates recovered from human and animals species","volume":"127","author":"Vautor","year":"2008","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/378492","article-title":"Investigation of Biofilm Forming Ability in Staphylococci Causing Bovine Mastitis Using Phenotypic and Genotypic Assays","volume":"2013","author":"Darwish","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sci. World J."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2888","DOI":"10.1128\/JB.183.9.2888-2896.2001","article-title":"Bap, a Staphylococcus aureus Surface Protein Involved in Biofilm Formation","volume":"183","author":"Cucarella","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micpath.2015.08.014","article-title":"Occurrence of genes coding for MSCRAMM and biofilm-associated protein Bap in Staphylococcus spp. isolated from bovine subclinical mastitis and relationship with somatic cell counts","volume":"89","author":"Zuniga","year":"2015","journal-title":"Microb. Pathog."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Valle, J., Latasa, C., Gil, C., Toledo-Arana, A., Solano, C., Penades, J.R., and Lasa, I. (2012). Bap, a Biofilm Matrix Protein of Staphylococcus aureus Prevents Cellular Internalization through Binding to GP96 Host Receptor. PLOS Pathog., 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1002843"},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.1080\/08927014.2015.1074681","article-title":"Comparative studies of the immunogenicity and protective potential of biofilmvsplanktonicStaphylococcus aureusvaccine against bovine mastitis using non-invasive mouse mastitis as a model system","volume":"31","author":"Williams","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biofouling"},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Perez, M.M., Prenafeta, A., Valle, J., Penades, J., Rota, C., Solano, C., Marco, J., Grillo, M.J., Lasa, I., and Irache, J.M. (2009). Protection from staphylococcus aureus mastitis associated with poly-n-acetyl beta-1,6 glucosamine specific antibody production using biofilm-embedded bacteria. Vaccine.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2009.02.005"},{"key":"ref_151","first-page":"1","article-title":"European Position Paper on Rhinosinusitis and Nasal Polyps 2012","volume":"23","author":"Fokkens","year":"2012","journal-title":"Rhinol. Suppl."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tan, K.S., Yan, Y., Ong, H.H., Chow, V.T.K., Shi, L., and Wang, D.-Y. (2017). Impact of Respiratory Virus Infections in Exacerbation of Acute and Chronic Rhinosinusitis. Curr. Allergy Asthma Rep., 17.","DOI":"10.1007\/s11882-017-0693-2"},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2019.00415","article-title":"Current Understanding of the Acute Exacerbation of Chronic Rhinosinusitis","volume":"9","author":"Wu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1007\/s11882-012-0246-7","article-title":"Role of Bacterial and Fungal Biofilms in Chronic Rhinosinusitis","volume":"12","author":"Foreman","year":"2012","journal-title":"Curr. Allergy Asthma Rep."},{"key":"ref_155","first-page":"3","article-title":"Biofilms and chronic rhinosinusitis: Systematic review of evidence, current concepts and directions for research","volume":"45","author":"Harvey","year":"2007","journal-title":"Rhinol. J."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"744","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022215115001620","article-title":"Biofilms in chronic rhinosinusitis: What is new and where next?","volume":"129","author":"Ramakrishnan","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Laryngol. Otol."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.4193\/Rhino13.053","article-title":"Bacterial biofilms in patients with chronic rhinosinusitis: A confocal scanning laser microscopy study","volume":"52","author":"Danielsen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Rhinol. J."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"902","DOI":"10.1177\/000348940811701207","article-title":"Damage to Ciliated Epithelium in Chronic Rhinosinusitis: What is the Role of Bacterial Biofilms?","volume":"117","author":"Galli","year":"2008","journal-title":"Ann. Otol. Rhinol. Laryngol."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1016\/j.otohns.2004.11.011","article-title":"Chronic rhinosinusitis and biofilms","volume":"132","author":"Ramadan","year":"2005","journal-title":"Otolaryngol.-Head Neck Surg."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"583","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjoto.2010.11.017","article-title":"Factors affecting bacterial biofilm expression in chronic rhinosinusitis and the influences on prognosis","volume":"32","author":"You","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Otolaryngol."},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1002\/alr.20060","article-title":"Are biofilms associated with an inflammatory response in chronic rhinosinusitis?","volume":"1","author":"Wood","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. Forum Allergy Rhinol."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1002\/alr.21154","article-title":"IntracellularStaphylococcus aureus: The Trojan horse of recalcitrant chronic rhinosinusitis?","volume":"3","author":"Tan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. Forum Allergy Rhinol."},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1015","DOI":"10.1007\/s00405-013-2635-5","article-title":"The influence of bacterial biofilm on the clinical outcome of chronic rhinosinusitis: A prospective, double-blind, scanning electron microscopy study","volume":"271","author":"Glowacki","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur. Arch. Otorhinolaryngol."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2011.02.022","article-title":"Asthma and biofilm-forming bacteria are independently associated with revision sinus surgeries for chronic rhinosinusitis","volume":"128","author":"Zhang","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.2500\/ajr.2008.22.3119","article-title":"The Effect of Bacterial Biofilms on Post-sinus Surgical Outcomes","volume":"22","author":"Psaltis","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Rhinol."},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.2500\/ajra.2010.24.3462","article-title":"The Impact of Biofilms on Outcomes after Endoscopic Sinus Surgery","volume":"24","author":"Singhal","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Rhinol. Allergy"},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1007\/s40136-018-0212-6","article-title":"Understanding the Role of Biofilms and Superantigens in Chronic Rhinosinusitis","volume":"6","author":"Maina","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Otorhinolaryngol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro1871","article-title":"The role of Streptococcus pneumoniae virulence factors in host respiratory colonization and disease","volume":"6","author":"Kadioglu","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Genet."},{"key":"ref_169","first-page":"163","article-title":"Pneumococci in biofilms are non-invasive: Implications on nasopharyngeal colonization","volume":"4","author":"Gilley","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marks, L.R., Davidson, B.A., Knight, P.R., and Hakansson, A.P. (2013). Interkingdom Signaling Induces Streptococcus pneumoniae Biofilm Dispersion and Transition from Asymptomatic Colonization to Disease. mBio, 4.","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.00438-13"},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.2174\/187221312800166877","article-title":"Adenotonsillar Disease","volume":"6","author":"Zautner","year":"2012","journal-title":"Recent Pat. Inflamm. Allergy Drug Discov."},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al-Mazrou, K.A., and Al-Khattaf, A.S. (2008). Adherent Biofilms in Adenotonsillar Diseases in Children. Arch. Otolaryngol.-Head Neck Surg., 134.","DOI":"10.1001\/archoto.2007.18"},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chole, R.A., and Faddis, B.T. (2003). Anatomical evidence of microbial biofilms in tonsillar tissues: A possible mechanism to explain chronicity. Arch. Otolaryngol.-Head Neck Surg.","DOI":"10.1001\/archotol.129.6.634"},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1503","DOI":"10.1007\/s10096-011-1249-3","article-title":"Relevance of biofilms in pediatric tonsillar disease","volume":"30","author":"Diaz","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Roberts, A.L., Connolly, K.L., Kirse, D.J., Evans, A.K., Poehling, A.K., Peters, T.R., and Reid, S.D. (2012). Detection of group A Streptococcus in tonsils from pediatric patients reveals high rate of asymptomatic streptococcal carriage. BMC Pediatr., 12.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2431-12-3"},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1115","DOI":"10.3109\/00016489.2012.689859","article-title":"Comparison of tonsillar biofilms between patients with recurrent tonsillitis and a control group","volume":"132","author":"Woo","year":"2012","journal-title":"Acta Oto-Laryngol."},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1242","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijporl.2009.05.016","article-title":"Identification of adenoid biofilms with middle ear pathogens in otitis-prone children utilizing sem and fish","volume":"73","author":"Hoa","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Pediatr. Otorhinolaryngol."},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Belcher, R., and Virgin, F. (2019). The Role of the Adenoids in Pediatric Chronic Rhinosinusitis. Med. Sci., 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/medsci7020035"},{"key":"ref_179","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1265","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.03350-12","article-title":"Protective mechanisms of respiratory tract streptococci against streptococcus pyogenes biofilm formation and epithelial cell infection","volume":"79","author":"Fiedler","year":"2013","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"448","DOI":"10.1097\/MOO.0000000000000200","article-title":"The role of biofilm in chronic laryngitis and in head and neck cancer","volume":"23","author":"Kinnari","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg."},{"key":"ref_181","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro3235","article-title":"Bordetella pertussis pathogenesis: Current and future challenges","volume":"12","author":"Melvin","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Genet."},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cattelan, N., Dubey, P., Arnal, L., Yantorno, O.M., and Deora, R. (2016). Bordetella biofilms: A lifestyle leading to persistent infections. Pathog. Dis., 74.","DOI":"10.1093\/femspd\/ftv108"},{"key":"ref_183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cattelan, N., Jennings-Gee, J., Dubey, P., Yantorno, O.M., and Deora, R. (2017). Hyperbiofilm Formation by Bordetella pertussis Strains Correlates with Enhanced Virulence Traits. Infect. Immun., 85.","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.00373-17"},{"key":"ref_184","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"328","DOI":"10.1086\/589753","article-title":"Pathology and Pathogenesis of FatalBordetella pertussisInfection in Infants","volume":"47","author":"Paddock","year":"2008","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_185","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Gouw, D., Serra, O.D., De Jonge, I.M., Hermans, P.W., Wessels, H.J., Zomer, A., Yantorno, O.M., Diavatopoulos, A.D., and Mooi, F.R. (2014). The vaccine potential of Bordetella pertussis biofilm-derived membrane proteins. Emerg. Microbes Infect., 3.","DOI":"10.1038\/emi.2014.58"},{"key":"ref_186","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cellimm.2019.01.006","article-title":"Immunogenicity and protective potential of Bordetella pertussis biofilm and its associated antigens in a murine model","volume":"337","author":"Dorji","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_187","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1663","DOI":"10.2217\/fmb.10.125","article-title":"Pseudomonas aeruginosabiofilms in cystic fibrosis","volume":"5","author":"Ciofu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Futur. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_188","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addr.2014.11.017","article-title":"Antimicrobial resistance, respiratory tract infections and role of biofilms in lung infections in cystic fibrosis patients","volume":"85","author":"Ciofu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_189","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1186\/s40348-016-0039-5","article-title":"Update on host-pathogen interactions in cystic fibrosis lung disease","volume":"3","author":"Hector","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mol. Cell. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_190","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.200509-1459OC","article-title":"Haemophilus influenzae forms biofilms on airway epithelia: Implications in cystic fibrosis","volume":"174","author":"Starner","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_191","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1650","DOI":"10.1164\/ajrccm\/140.6.1650","article-title":"Immunohistopathologic Localization of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in Lungs from Patients with Cystic Fibrosis: Implications for the Pathogenesis of Progressive Lung Deterioration","volume":"140","author":"Baltimore","year":"1989","journal-title":"Am. Rev. Respir. Dis."},{"key":"ref_192","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/S1286-4579(00)01349-6","article-title":"Pseudomonas aeruginosa and the in vitro and in vivo biofilm mode of growth","volume":"3","author":"Johansen","year":"2001","journal-title":"Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_193","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"546","DOI":"10.1128\/iai.28.2.546-556.1980","article-title":"Production of mucoid microcolonies by Pseudomonas aeruginosa within infected lungs in cystic fibrosis","volume":"28","author":"Lam","year":"1980","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_194","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"762","DOI":"10.1038\/35037627","article-title":"Quorum-sensing signals indicate that cystic fibrosis lungs are infected with bacterial biofilms","volume":"407","author":"Singh","year":"2000","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_195","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI0213870","article-title":"Effects of reduced mucus oxygen concentration in airway Pseudomonas infections of cystic fibrosis patients","volume":"109","author":"Worlitzsch","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_196","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1016\/S1534-5807(02)00295-2","article-title":"Pseudomonas aeruginosa anaerobic respiration in biofilms: Relationships to cystic fibrosis pathogenesis","volume":"3","author":"Yoon","year":"2002","journal-title":"Dev. Cell"},{"key":"ref_197","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2014.10.024","article-title":"ESCMID* guideline for the diagnosis and treatment of biofilm infections 2014","volume":"21","author":"Bjarnsholt","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_198","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.12954\/PI.12013","article-title":"Clinical courses following acute bacterial prostatitis","volume":"1","author":"Yoon","year":"2013","journal-title":"Prostate Int."},{"key":"ref_199","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"444","DOI":"10.1007\/s10156-011-0350-y","article-title":"Acute bacterial prostatitis: How to prevent and manage chronic infection?","volume":"18","author":"Yoon","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Infect. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_200","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1439-0272.2007.00827.x","article-title":"Chronic bacterial prostatitis (NIH type II): Diagnosis, therapy and influence on the fertility status","volume":"40","author":"Wagenlehner","year":"2008","journal-title":"Andrologia"},{"key":"ref_201","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S119","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01643680","article-title":"Chronic prostatitis: A thorough search for etiologically involved microorganisms in 1,461 patients","volume":"19","author":"Weidner","year":"1991","journal-title":"Infect."},{"key":"ref_202","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"737","DOI":"10.1007\/s00345-013-1145-9","article-title":"The impact of biofilm-producing bacteria on chronic bacterial prostatitis treatment: Results from a longitudinal cohort study","volume":"32","author":"Bartoletti","year":"2014","journal-title":"World J. Urol."},{"key":"ref_203","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2006.05.006","article-title":"Increased biofilm formation in Escherichia coli isolated from acute prostatitis","volume":"28","author":"Kanamaru","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref_204","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1016\/j.juro.2006.08.081","article-title":"Biofilm Formation in Uropathogenic Escherichia coli Strains: Relationship with Prostatitis, Urovirulence Factors and Antimicrobial Resistance","volume":"177","author":"Soto","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Urol."},{"key":"ref_205","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.4111\/icu.2018.59.3.187","article-title":"Prostate calcifications: A case series supporting the microbial biofilm theory","volume":"59","author":"Cai","year":"2018","journal-title":"Investig. Clin. Urol."},{"key":"ref_206","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1464-410X.1990.tb14864.x","article-title":"Pathogenesis of Chronic Bacterial Prostatitis in an Animal Model","volume":"66","author":"Nickel","year":"1990","journal-title":"BJU Int."},{"key":"ref_207","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1574-695X.2010.00659.x","article-title":"Biofilms in chronic bacterial prostatitis (NIH-II) and in prostatic calcifications","volume":"59","author":"Mazzoli","year":"2010","journal-title":"FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_208","first-page":"146","article-title":"Features of uropathogenic Escherichia coli able to invade a prostate cell line","volume":"39","author":"Longhi","year":"2016","journal-title":"New Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_209","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"628","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.00910-10","article-title":"Uropathogenic escherichia coli induces chronic pelvic pain","volume":"79","author":"Rudick","year":"2011","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_210","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1084550","article-title":"Intracellular Bacterial Biofilm-Like Pods in Urinary Tract Infections","volume":"301","author":"Anderson","year":"2003","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_211","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2762","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.00323-09","article-title":"Urothelial Cultures Support Intracellular Bacterial Community Formation by Uropathogenic Escherichia coli","volume":"77","author":"Berry","year":"2009","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_212","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3105","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.00438-16","article-title":"The Adherent\/Invasive Escherichia coli Strain LF82 Invades and Persists in Human Prostate Cell Line RWPE-1, Activating a Strong Inflammatory Response","volume":"84","author":"Conte","year":"2016","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_213","first-page":"710","article-title":"Persistence of uropathogenic Escherichia Coli in the bladders of female patients with sterile urine after antibiotic therapies","volume":"36","author":"Liu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Acta Acad. Med. Wuhan"},{"key":"ref_214","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Olson, P.D., and Hunstad, D.A. (2016). Subversion of Host Innate Immunity by Uropathogenic Escherichia coli. Pathogens, 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens5010002"},{"key":"ref_215","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1097\/QCO.0000000000000229","article-title":"Urinary tract infections in women with urogynaecological symptoms","volume":"29","author":"Lakeman","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_216","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1016\/j.urology.2015.04.002","article-title":"Intracellular Bacterial Communities: A Potential Etiology for Chronic Lower Urinary Tract Symptoms","volume":"86","author":"Scott","year":"2015","journal-title":"Urology"},{"key":"ref_217","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1111\/2049-632X.12047","article-title":"Detection of intracellular bacterial communities in a child with Escherichia coli recurrent urinary tract infections","volume":"68","author":"Robino","year":"2013","journal-title":"Pathog. Dis."},{"key":"ref_218","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"424","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tim.2004.07.005","article-title":"Intracellular bacterial communities of uropathogenic escherichia coli in urinary tract pathogenesis","volume":"12","author":"Anderson","year":"2004","journal-title":"Trends Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_219","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1094","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micinf.2004.05.023","article-title":"Host subversion by formation of intracellular bacterial communities in the urinary tract","volume":"6","author":"Anderson","year":"2004","journal-title":"Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_220","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1333","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0308125100","article-title":"Differentiation and developmental pathways of uropathogenic Escherichia coli in urinary tract pathogenesis","volume":"101","author":"Justice","year":"2004","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_221","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.01123-06","article-title":"Escherichia coli from urine of female patients with urinary tract infections is competent for intracellular bacterial community formation","volume":"75","author":"Garofalo","year":"2007","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_222","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rosen, A.D., Hooton, T.M., Stamm, E.W., Humphrey, A.P., and Hultgren, S.J. (2007). Detection of Intracellular Bacterial Communities in Human Urinary Tract Infection. PLoS Med., 4.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.0040329"},{"key":"ref_223","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e158","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciu634","article-title":"Intracellular Bacteria in the Pathogenesis of Escherichia coli Urinary Tract Infection in Children","volume":"59","author":"Robino","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_224","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1186\/2193-1801-3-200","article-title":"Urinary ATP and visualization of intracellular bacteria: A superior diagnostic marker for recurrent UTI in renal transplant recipients?","volume":"3","author":"Kelley","year":"2014","journal-title":"Springerplus"}],"container-title":["Antibiotics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6382\/9\/2\/59\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T08:54:14Z","timestamp":1760172854000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6382\/9\/2\/59"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,3]]},"references-count":224,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,2]]}},"alternative-id":["antibiotics9020059"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/antibiotics9020059","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-6382"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-6382","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,3]]}}}