{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,26]],"date-time":"2026-09-26T10:35:35Z","timestamp":1790418935326,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":116,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,27]],"date-time":"2021-10-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1635292800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Institute of Health, USA","award":["P30 DK017047-44"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P30 DK017047-44"]}]},{"name":"National Institute of Health","award":["1P30AG066509-01"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1P30AG066509-01"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Antioxidants"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The blood\u2013brain barrier (BBB) is a network of specialized endothelial cells that regulates substrate entry into the central nervous system (CNS). Acting as the interface between the periphery and the CNS, the BBB must be equipped to defend against oxidative stress and other free radicals generated in the periphery to protect the CNS. There are unique features of brain endothelial cells that increase the susceptibility of these cells to oxidative stress. Insulin signaling can be impacted by varying levels of oxidative stress, with low levels of oxidative stress being necessary for signaling and higher levels being detrimental. Insulin must cross the BBB in order to access the CNS, levels of which are important in peripheral metabolism as well as cognition. Any alterations in BBB transport due to oxidative stress at the BBB could have downstream disease implications. In this review, we cover the interactions of oxidative stress at the BBB, how insulin signaling is related to oxidative stress, and the impact of the BBB in two diseases greatly affected by oxidative stress and insulin resistance: diabetes mellitus and Alzheimer\u2019s disease.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox10111695","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,27]],"date-time":"2021-10-27T22:00:23Z","timestamp":1635372023000},"page":"1695","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":102,"title":["The Blood\u2013Brain Barrier, Oxidative Stress, and Insulin Resistance"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"William A.","family":"Banks","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Division of Gerontology and Geriatric Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA"},{"name":"Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Center, Veterans Affairs Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, WA 98108, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8118-120X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elizabeth M.","family":"Rhea","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Division of Gerontology and Geriatric Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA"},{"name":"Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Center, Veterans Affairs Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, WA 98108, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1399","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1471-4159.1987.tb05677.x","article-title":"Enzymatic protection against peroxidative damage in isolated brain capillaries","volume":"48","author":"Tayarani","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. 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