{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,17]],"date-time":"2026-10-17T19:22:13Z","timestamp":1792264933287,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":98,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,30]],"date-time":"2022-11-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1669766400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Antioxidants"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Hexavalent chromium is a highly soluble environmental contaminant. It is a widespread anthropogenic chromium species that is 100 times more toxic than trivalent chromium. Leather, chrome plating, coal mining and paint industries are the major sources of hexavalent chromium in water. Hexavalent chromium is widely recognised as a carcinogen and mutagen in humans and other animals. It is also responsible for multiorgan damage, such as kidney damage, liver failure, heart failure, skin disease and lung dysfunction. The fate of the toxicity of hexavalent chromium depends on its oxidation state. The reduction of Cr (VI) to Cr (III) is responsible for the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and chromium intermediate species, such as Cr (V) and Cr (IV). Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are responsible for oxidative tissue damage and the disruption of cell organelles, such as mitochondria, DNA, RNA and protein molecules. Cr (VI)-induced oxidative stress can be neutralised by the antioxidant system in human and animal cells. In this review, the authors summarise the Cr (VI) source, toxicity and antioxidant defence mechanism against Cr (VI)-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS).<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox11122375","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,30]],"date-time":"2022-11-30T07:38:50Z","timestamp":1669793930000},"page":"2375","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":216,"title":["Hexavalent-Chromium-Induced Oxidative Stress and the Protective Role of Antioxidants against Cellular Toxicity"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Veer","family":"Singh","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biochemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nidhi","family":"Singh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre of Bioinformatics, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj 211002, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Manisha","family":"Verma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biochemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rashmi","family":"Kamal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biochemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6593-6024","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ritesh","family":"Tiwari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biochemistry, Rajendra Memorial Research Institute of Medical Sciences, Patna 800007, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mahesh","family":"Sanjay Chivate","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biochemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8418-9549","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sachchida Nand","family":"Rai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre of Biotechnology, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj 211002, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ashish","family":"Kumar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biochemistry, Rajendra Memorial Research Institute of Medical Sciences, Patna 800007, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anupama","family":"Singh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Energy and Environment, Indian Institute of Technology, Patna 801106, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6236-856X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohan P.","family":"Singh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre of Biotechnology, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj 211002, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3376-2058","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emanuel","family":"Vamanu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Biotechnology, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Bucharest, 011464 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vishal","family":"Mishra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biochemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wong, M.H. (2012). Environmental Contamination: Health Risks and Ecological Restoration, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/b12531-2"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Fergusson, J.E. (1990). The Heavy Elements: Chemistry, Environmental Impact and Health Effects, Pergamon Press."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7249","DOI":"10.1007\/s00253-016-7551-3","article-title":"Mycoremediation of manganese and phenanthrene by Pleurotus eryngii mycelium enhanced by Tween 80 and saponin","volume":"100","author":"Wu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e04691","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2020.e04691","article-title":"Heavy metal pollution in the environment and their toxicological effects on humans","volume":"6","author":"Briffa","year":"2020","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2745","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph7072745","article-title":"Chelation in metal intoxication","volume":"7","author":"Flora","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"47","article-title":"Removal of Ni (II) and Zn (II) from aqueous solutions using chitosan","volume":"5","author":"Sobhanardakani","year":"2016","journal-title":"Arch. Hyg. Sci."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arabjc.2010.07.019","article-title":"New trends in removing heavy metals from industrial wastewater","volume":"4","author":"Barakat","year":"2011","journal-title":"Arab. J. Chem."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1080\/15226510801913918","article-title":"Heavy metal pollution in aquatic ecosystems and its phytoremediation using wetland plants: An ecosustainable approach","volume":"10","author":"Rai","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Phytorem."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"40","article-title":"Design of cost-effective coal washery effluent treatment plant for clean environment","volume":"60","author":"Ghose","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Sci. Ind. Res."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"ATSDR, and Public Health Service (2020, March 01). Toxicological Profile for Lead, Available online: https:\/\/www.atsdr.cdc.gov\/toxprofiles\/tp13.pdf."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1007\/s11270-008-9893-7","article-title":"Removal of hexavalent chromium-contaminated water and wastewater: A review","volume":"200","author":"Owlad","year":"2009","journal-title":"Water Air Soil Pollut."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) (2018, March 15). India (2000) Environmental Standards for Ambient Air, Automobiles, Fuels, Industries and Noise. Available online: http:\/\/www.cpcbenvis.nic.in\/scanned%20reports\/PCL%204%20Environmental%20Standards.pdf."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3596","DOI":"10.1128\/MCB.25.9.3596-3607.2005","article-title":"Mismatch repair proteins are activators of toxic responses to chromium-DNA damage","volume":"25","author":"Reynolds","year":"2005","journal-title":"Mol. Cell. Biol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.5004\/dwt.2020.25996","article-title":"Bioremediation of toxic metal ions from coal washery effluent","volume":"197","author":"Singh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Desalin. Water Treat."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105124","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jece.2021.105124","article-title":"Development of a cost-effective, recyclable and viable metal ion doped adsorbent for simultaneous adsorption and reduction of toxic Cr (VI) ions","volume":"9","author":"Singh","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Environ. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jgeb.2015.02.001","article-title":"Enhancing phytoremediation of chromium-stressed soils through plant-growth-promoting bacteria","volume":"13","author":"Ahemad","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Genet. Eng. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cbpc.2010.06.003","article-title":"Chromium effects on free radical processes in goldfish tissues: Comparison of Cr (III) and Cr (VI) exposures on oxidative stress markers, glutathione status and antioxidant enzymes","volume":"152","author":"Kubrak","year":"2010","journal-title":"Comp. Biochem. Physiol. C Toxicol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"730","DOI":"10.1007\/s00128-013-0984-9","article-title":"Biochemical changes of fresh water cyanobacteria Dolichospermum flos-aquae NTMS07 to chromium-induced stress with special reference to antioxidant enzymes and cellular fatty acids","volume":"90","author":"Kumar","year":"2013","journal-title":"Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2557","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2006.09.051","article-title":"Metal tolerance and biosorption potential of filamentous fungi isolated from metal contaminated agricultural soil","volume":"98","author":"Zafar","year":"2007","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"45","article-title":"Mechanisms of hexavalent chromium resistance and removal by microorganisms","volume":"233","author":"Joutey","year":"2015","journal-title":"Rev. Environ. Contam. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"330","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2016.10.077","article-title":"Direct Cr (VI) Bio-Reduction with Organics as Electron Donor by Anaerobic Sludge","volume":"309","author":"Qian","year":"2017","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20981","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-021-13325-7","article-title":"Hexavalent Chromium Reducing Bacteria: Mechanism of Reduction and Characteristics","volume":"28","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1027","DOI":"10.1080\/10643389.2018.1564526","article-title":"A Critical Review on Bioremediation Technologies for Cr(VI)-Contaminated Soils and Wastewater","volume":"49","author":"Xia","year":"2019","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1186\/s40643-017-0162-8","article-title":"Mycoremediation Potential of Pleurotus Species for Heavy Metals: A Review","volume":"4","author":"Kapahi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Bioresour. Bioprocess."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1007\/s11783-020-1267-4","article-title":"Hexavalent Chromium in Drinking Water: Chemistry, Challenges and Future Outlook on Sn(II)- and Photocatalyst-Based Treatment","volume":"14","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Environ. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9332","DOI":"10.1021\/es2021704","article-title":"Advanced oxidation process based on the Cr (III)\/Cr (VI) redox cycle","volume":"45","author":"Bokare","year":"2011","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/10590501.2015.1096883","article-title":"Toxic and Genotoxic Effects of Hexavalent Chromium in Environment and Its Bioremediation Strategies","volume":"34","author":"Mishra","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Environ. Sci. Health C Environ. Carcinog. Ecotoxicol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"1","article-title":"Signaling Pathways and Genes Associated with Hexavalent Chromium-Induced Hepatotoxicity","volume":"225","author":"Li","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biol. Trace Elem. Res."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2022.113119","article-title":"Mechanism of Chromium-Induced Toxicity in Lungs, Liver, and Kidney and Their Ameliorative Agents","volume":"151","author":"Chakraborty","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biomed. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2007.08.011","article-title":"Phellinus linteus inhibits inflammatory mediators by suppressing redox-based NF-\u03baB and MAPKs activation in lipopolysaccharide-induced RAW 264.7 macrophage","volume":"114","author":"Kim","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1016\/S0891-5849(96)00352-8","article-title":"Induction of oxidative stress by chronic administration of sodium dichromate [chromium VI] and cadmium chloride [cadmium II] to rats","volume":"22","author":"Bagchi","year":"1997","journal-title":"Free Radical Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mrgentox.2004.02.009","article-title":"Chromium is the proximate clastogenic species for lead chromate-induced clastogenicity in human bronchial cells","volume":"560","author":"Wise","year":"2004","journal-title":"Mutat. Res. Genet. Toxicol. Environ. Mutagen."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wakeel, A., Xu, M., and Gan, Y. (2020). Chromium-induced reactive oxygen species accumulation by altering the enzymatic antioxidant system and associated cytotoxic, genotoxic, ultrastructural, and photosynthetic changes in plants. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21030728"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.3109\/10408449309105012","article-title":"Mechanisms of chromium carcinogenicity and toxicity","volume":"23","author":"Cohen","year":"1993","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"643972","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2021.643972","article-title":"Toxic Mechanisms of Five Heavy Metals: Mercury, Lead, Chromium, Cadmium, and Arsenic","volume":"12","author":"Naseri","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109890","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2019.109890","article-title":"Effect of Hexavalent Chromium Exposure on the Liver and Kidney Tissues Related to the Expression of CYP450 and GST Genes of Oreochromis Niloticus Fish: Role of Curcumin Supplemented Diet","volume":"188","author":"Mohamed","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"822","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2019.06.096","article-title":"Exploring the Kidney Hazard of Exposure to Mercuric Chloride in Mice: Disorder of Mitochondrial Dynamics Induces Oxidative Stress and Results in Apoptosis","volume":"234","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2866","DOI":"10.1007\/s12011-021-02877-x","article-title":"Hexavalent Chromium Causes Apoptosis and Autophagy by Inducing Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Oxidative Stress in Broiler Cardiomyocytes","volume":"200","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biol. Trace Elem. Res."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"716","DOI":"10.1007\/s00128-021-03427-w","article-title":"Environmentally Relevant Hexavalent Chromium Disrupts Elemental Homeostasis and Induces Apoptosis in Zebrafish Liver","volume":"108","author":"Shaw","year":"2022","journal-title":"Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1002\/tox.20395","article-title":"Oxidative Stress, DNA Damage, and Antioxidant Enzyme Activity Induced by Hexavalent Chromium in Sprague-Dawley Rats","volume":"24","author":"Patlolla","year":"2009","journal-title":"Environ Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"600","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxrep.2015.03.013","article-title":"Hexavalent Chromium Induces Apoptosis in Human Liver (HepG2) Cells via Redox Imbalance","volume":"2","author":"Das","year":"2015","journal-title":"Toxicol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2420","DOI":"10.1002\/pmic.200701050","article-title":"Proteomic Analysis of Chromium Cytotoxicity in Cultured Rat Lung Epithelial Cells","volume":"8","author":"Lei","year":"2008","journal-title":"Proteomics"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mrgentox.2010.03.014","article-title":"Chromium-Induced Biochemical, Genotoxic and Histopathologic Effects in Liver and Kidney of Goldfish, Carassius Auratus","volume":"698","author":"Velma","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mutat. Res."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1093\/toxsci\/kfr180","article-title":"NADPH Oxidase Activation Is Required in Reactive Oxygen Species Generation and Cell Transformation Induced by Hexavalent Chromium","volume":"123","author":"Wang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Toxicol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1016\/S0300-483X(02)00378-5","article-title":"Cytotoxicity and Oxidative Mechanisms of Different Forms of Chromium","volume":"180","author":"Bagchi","year":"2002","journal-title":"Toxicology"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mrgentox.2006.04.020","article-title":"Oxidative stress and genotoxic effects in gill and kidney of Anguilla anguilla L. exposed to chromium with or without pre-exposure to beta-naphthoflavone","volume":"608","author":"Ahmad","year":"2006","journal-title":"Mutat. Res."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111061","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2020.111061","article-title":"Hexavalent Chromium Induces Renal Apoptosis and Autophagy via Disordering the Balance of Mitochondrial Dynamics in Rats","volume":"204","author":"Zheng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e021470","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2017-021470","article-title":"Oxidative stress and DNA damage in a long-term hexavalent chromium-exposed population in North China: A cross-sectional study","volume":"8","author":"Xu","year":"2018","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1183","DOI":"10.1002\/jat.3965","article-title":"Mechanisms and Individuality in Chromium Toxicity in Humans","volume":"40","author":"Pavesi","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Appl. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1017958028256","article-title":"Chromium (VI)-induced oxidative stress, apoptotic cell death and modulation of p53 tumor suppressor gene","volume":"222","author":"Bagchi","year":"2001","journal-title":"Mol. Cell. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"353","article-title":"Carcinogenicity of hexavalent chromium","volume":"128","author":"Holmes","year":"2008","journal-title":"Indian J. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1016\/j.taap.2010.03.004","article-title":"Cr(VI) induces mitochondrial-mediated and caspase-dependent apoptosis through reactive oxygen species-mediated p53 activation in JB6 Cl41 cells","volume":"245","author":"Son","year":"2010","journal-title":"Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hazadv.2022.100113","article-title":"Recent Developments in Essentiality of Trivalent Chromium and Toxicity of Hexavalent Chromium: Implications on Human Health and Remediation Strategies","volume":"7","author":"Monga","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater. Adv."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7282","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2021.1913400","article-title":"Superoxide dismutase: An updated review on its health benefits and industrial applications","volume":"62","author":"Islam","year":"2022","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Aziz, M.A., Diab, A.S., and Mohammed, A.A. (2019). Antioxidant Categories and Mode of Action, IntechOpen."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1016\/S0300-483X(00)00306-1","article-title":"Effects of antioxidant enzymes in the molecular control of reactive oxygen species toxicology","volume":"153","year":"2000","journal-title":"Toxicology"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dworza\u0144ski, J., Strycharz-Dudziak, M., Kliszczewska, E., Kie\u0142czykowska, M., Dworza\u0144ska, A., Drop, B., and Polz-Dacewicz, M. (2020). Glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity in patients with diabetes mellitus type 2 infected with Epstein-Barr virus. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0230374"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Azadmanesh, J., and Borgstahl, G.E.O. (2018). A review of the catalytic mechanism of human manganese superoxide dismutase. Antioxidants, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox7020025"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13036","DOI":"10.1111\/eci.13036","article-title":"The copper-zinc superoxide dismutase activity in selected diseases","volume":"49","author":"Lewandowski","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1007\/s12015-015-9628-2","article-title":"Redox-Active Mn Porphyrin-based Potent SOD Mimic, MnTnBuOE-2-PyP5+, Enhances Carbenoxolone-Mediated TRAIL-Induced Apoptosis in Glioblastoma Multiforme","volume":"12","author":"Yulyana","year":"2016","journal-title":"Stem Cell Rev. Rep."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mad.2007.08.004","article-title":"Dietary restriction in Drosophila is dependent on mitochondrial efficiency and constrained by pre-existing extended longevity","volume":"128","author":"Soh","year":"2007","journal-title":"Mech. Ageing Dev."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rottner, M., Tual-Chalot, S., Mostefai, H.A., Andriantsitohaina, R., Freyssinet, J.M., and Martinez, M.C. (2011). Increased oxidative stress induces apoptosis in human cystic fibrosis cells. PLoS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0024880"},{"key":"ref_63","first-page":"754132","article-title":"Exogenous superoxide dismutase: Action on liver oxidative stress in animals with streptozotocin-induced diabetes","volume":"2011","author":"Dias","year":"2011","journal-title":"Exp. Diabetes Res."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lfs.2015.04.018","article-title":"Extracellular superoxide dismutase ameliorates streptozotocin-induced rat diabetic nephropathy via inhibiting the ROS\/ERK1\/2 signaling","volume":"135","author":"Kuo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_65","first-page":"701","article-title":"Developments in Microbial Fuel Cell System for Electricity Generation","volume":"6","author":"Masih","year":"2014","journal-title":"Trends. Biosci."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainresbull.2013.09.009","article-title":"Molecular basis of hippocampal energy metabolism in diabetic rats: The effects of SOD mimic","volume":"99","year":"2013","journal-title":"Brain Res. Bull."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210013","DOI":"10.1098\/rsob.210013","article-title":"Therapeutic potential of astaxanthin and superoxide dismutase in Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"11","author":"Balendra","year":"2021","journal-title":"Open Biol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11648","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M414327200","article-title":"Oxidative modifications and aggregation of Cu, Zn-superoxide dismutase associated with Alzheimer and Parkinson diseases","volume":"280","author":"Choi","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1810","DOI":"10.5958\/0974-360X.2018.00336.0","article-title":"Antioxidant defense and disease activity in rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"11","author":"Premkumar","year":"2018","journal-title":"Res. J. Pharm. Technol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pbiomolbio.2018.03.001","article-title":"Catalase and its mysteries","volume":"140","author":"Tehrani","year":"2018","journal-title":"Prog. Biophys. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_71","first-page":"3986","article-title":"Genomic instability and catalase gene amplification induced by chronic exposure to oxidative stress","volume":"58","author":"Hunt","year":"1998","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.freeradbiomed.2022.05.003","article-title":"The glutathione peroxidase family: Discoveries and mechanism","volume":"187","author":"Toppo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Free Radic. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cubas-Gaona, L.L., de Francisco, P., Mart\u00edn-Gonz\u00e1lez, A., and Guti\u00e9rrez, J.C. (2020). Tetrahymena glutathione peroxidase family: A comparative analysis of these antioxidant enzymes and differential gene expression to metals and oxidizing agents. Microorganisms, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms8071008"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1016\/j.advms.2017.05.005","article-title":"Endogenous Non-Enzymatic Antioxidants in the Human Body","volume":"63","author":"Witkowska","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.4161\/oxim.3.4.12858","article-title":"Exogenous Antioxidants\u2014Double-Edged Swords in Cellular Redox State: Health Beneficial Effects at Physiologic Doses versus Deleterious Effects at High Doses","volume":"3","author":"Bouayed","year":"2010","journal-title":"Oxid. Med. Cell. Longev."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tiv.2018.04.004","article-title":"3,4-Dihydroxybenzaldehyde Quenches ROS and RNS and Protects Human Blood Cells from Cr(VI)-Induced Cytotoxicity and Genotoxicity","volume":"50","author":"Husain","year":"2018","journal-title":"Toxicol. Vitr."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phymed.2008.09.013","article-title":"3,4-Dihydroxybenzaldehyde Purified from the Barley Seeds (Hordeum vulgare) Inhibits Oxidative DNA Damage and Apoptosis via Its Antioxidant Activity","volume":"16","author":"Jeong","year":"2009","journal-title":"Phytomedicine"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1254\/jphs.10271FP","article-title":"DJ-1-Mediated Protective Effect of Protocatechuic Aldehyde against Oxidative Stress in SH-SY5Y Cells","volume":"115","author":"Gao","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Pharmacol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116242","DOI":"10.1016\/j.taap.2022.116242","article-title":"Ellagic Acid Ameliorates Hexavalent Chromium-Induced Renal Toxicity by Attenuating Oxidative Stress, Suppressing TNF-\u03b1 and Protecting Mitochondria","volume":"454","author":"Zazueta","year":"2022","journal-title":"Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"672","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnutbio.2004.06.004","article-title":"In Vitro Anti-Proliferative Activities of Ellagic Acid","volume":"15","author":"Losso","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Nutr. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1591","DOI":"10.5713\/ajas.18.0015","article-title":"Expression of selenium-independent glutathione peroxidase 5 (GPx5) in the epididymis of Small Tail Han sheep","volume":"31","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Asian-Australas. J. Anim. Sci."},{"key":"ref_82","first-page":"546","article-title":"Methods for determination of antioxidant capacity: A review","volume":"6","author":"Gupta","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm. Sci. Res."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6658","DOI":"10.1021\/jf300861c","article-title":"Evolution of phenolic compounds from color and flavor problems to health benefits","volume":"60","author":"Gutierrez","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Prenzler, P.D., Ryan, D., and Robards, K. (2021). Chapter 1. Introduction to Basic Principles of Antioxidant Activity. Food Chemistry, Function and Analysis, Royal Society of Chemistry.","DOI":"10.1039\/9781839165337-00001"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brar, S.K., Dhillon, G.S., and Soccol, C.R. (2014). Antioxidants. Biotransformation of Waste Biomass into High Value Biochemicals, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4614-8005-1"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126925","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2020.126925","article-title":"A comprehensive profiling of free, conjugated and bound phenolics and lipophilic antioxidants in red and green lentil processing by-products","volume":"325","author":"Sun","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1007\/s10534-009-9276-6","article-title":"Response of antioxidant defense system to chromium (VI)-induced cytotoxicity in human diploid cells","volume":"23","author":"Asatiani","year":"2010","journal-title":"Biometals"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6564","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0305888101","article-title":"Cells have distinct mechanisms to maintain protection against different reactive oxygen species: Oxidative-stress-response genes","volume":"101","author":"Thorpe","year":"2004","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111758","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2020.111758","article-title":"Jasmonic acid-mediated enhanced regulation of oxidative, glyoxalase defense system and reduced chromium uptake contributes to alleviation of chromium (VI) toxicity in choysum (Brassica parachinensis L.)","volume":"208","author":"Kamran","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1663","DOI":"10.1021\/jf052731u","article-title":"Crocin bleaching assay step by step: Observations and suggestions for an alternative validated protocol","volume":"54","author":"Ordoudi","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2014.06.114","article-title":"Crocin bleaching antioxidant assay revisited: Application to microplate to analyse antioxidant and pro-oxidant activities","volume":"167","author":"Prieto","year":"2015","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"837","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-2952(88)90169-4","article-title":"Flavonoids are scavengers of superoxide anions","volume":"37","author":"Robak","year":"1998","journal-title":"Biochem. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"949","DOI":"10.1080\/10715760500210145","article-title":"Total antioxidant capacity assay of human serum using copper(II)neocuproine as chromogenic oxidant: The CUPRAC method","volume":"39","author":"Apak","year":"2005","journal-title":"Free Radic. Res."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11996","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules181011996","article-title":"Structural correlation of some heterocyclic chalcone analogues and evaluation of their antioxidant potential","volume":"18","author":"Kumar","year":"2013","journal-title":"Molecules"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1591","DOI":"10.1016\/j.freeradbiomed.2007.02.022","article-title":"Impact of iron and vitamin C-containing supplements on preterm human milk: In vitro","volume":"42","author":"Friel","year":"2007","journal-title":"Free Radic. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_96","first-page":"295","article-title":"Evaluation of Antioxidant Activity Using an Improved DMPD Radical Cation Decolorization Assay","volume":"54","author":"Asghar","year":"2007","journal-title":"Acta Chim. Slov."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6905","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules15106905","article-title":"Natural antioxidants: Fascinating or mythical biomolecules?","volume":"15","author":"Ndhlala","year":"2010","journal-title":"Molecules"},{"key":"ref_98","first-page":"205","article-title":"Antioxidant activities and chemical compositon of different extracts of mosses gathered from Turkey","volume":"6","author":"Sogut","year":"2017","journal-title":"AgroLife Sci. J."}],"container-title":["Antioxidants"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3921\/11\/12\/2375\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:30:29Z","timestamp":1760146229000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3921\/11\/12\/2375"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,30]]},"references-count":98,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,12]]}},"alternative-id":["antiox11122375"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/antiox11122375","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-3921"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-3921","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,30]]}}}