{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,29]],"date-time":"2026-08-29T23:09:12Z","timestamp":1788044952502,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":96,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,20]],"date-time":"2023-09-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1695168000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000009","name":"National Institutes of Health, USA","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01 EY015526"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01 EY015526"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000009","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Antioxidants"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Molecular oxygen is a primary oxidant that is involved in the formation of active oxygen species and in the oxidation of lipids and proteins. Thus, controlling oxygen partial pressure (concentration) in the human organism, tissues, and organs can be the first step in protecting them against oxidative stress. However, it is not an easy task because oxygen is necessary for ATP synthesis by mitochondria and in many biochemical reactions taking place in all cells in the human body. Moreover, the blood circulatory system delivers oxygen to all parts of the body. The eye lens seems to be the only organ that is protected from the oxidative stress through the regulation of oxygen partial pressure. The basic mechanism that developed during evolution to protect the eye lens against oxidative damage is based on the maintenance of a very low concentration of oxygen within the lens. This antioxidant mechanism is supported by the resistance of both the lipid components of the lens membrane and cytosolic proteins to oxidation. Any disturbance, continuous or acute, in the working of this mechanism increases the oxygen concentration, in effect causing cataract development. Here, we describe the biophysical basis of the mechanism and its correlation with lens transparency.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox12091783","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,20]],"date-time":"2023-09-20T21:26:32Z","timestamp":1695245192000},"page":"1783","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Protecting the Eye Lens from Oxidative Stress through Oxygen Regulation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Witold Karol","family":"Subczynski","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biophysics, Medical College on Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5328-5685","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marta","family":"Pasenkiewicz-Gierula","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computational Biophysics and Bioinformatics, Jagiellonian University, 30-387 Krakow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2358-4099","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Justyna","family":"Widomska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biophysics, Medical University of Lublin, 20-090 Lublin, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1219","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2010.0324","article-title":"Lens fibre cell differentiation and organelle loss: Many paths lead to clarity","volume":"366","author":"Wride","year":"2011","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exer.2008.08.017","article-title":"On the mechanism of organelle degradation in the vertebrate lens","volume":"88","author":"Bassnett","year":"2009","journal-title":"Exp. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1006\/exer.2001.1111","article-title":"Lens organelle degradation","volume":"74","author":"Bassnett","year":"2002","journal-title":"Exp. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.pmbts.2015.04.006","article-title":"Overview of the Lens","volume":"134","author":"Hejtmancik","year":"2015","journal-title":"Prog. Mol. Biol. Transl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1016\/j.preteyeres.2011.07.001","article-title":"Oxygen-deficient metabolism and corneal edema","volume":"30","author":"Leung","year":"2011","journal-title":"Prog. Retin. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eaton, S.R., Eaton, G.R., and Berliner, L.J. (2005). Biomedical EPR, Part A: Free Radicals, Metals, Medicine, and Physiology, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/b138018"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5731","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.10-5666","article-title":"Oxygen distribution in the human eye: Relevance to the etiology of open-angle glaucoma after vitrectomy","volume":"51","author":"Siegfried","year":"2010","journal-title":"Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1293","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2010.0228","article-title":"Vitreoretinal influences on lens function and cataract","volume":"366","author":"Beebe","year":"2011","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"161","article-title":"Oxygen in the anterior chamber of the human eye","volume":"2","author":"Helbig","year":"1993","journal-title":"Ger. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"883","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.2004.068619","article-title":"Regulation of tissue oxygen levels in the mammalian lens","volume":"559","author":"McNulty","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1295","DOI":"10.1126\/science.142.3597.1295","article-title":"Oxygen uptake from a reservoir of limited volume by the human cornea in vivo","volume":"142","author":"Hill","year":"1963","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"803","DOI":"10.1097\/00006324-198110000-00004","article-title":"Apparent human corneal oxygen uptake rate","volume":"58","author":"Larke","year":"1981","journal-title":"Am. J. Optom. Physiol. Opt."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1016\/j.freeradbiomed.2016.07.016","article-title":"Mitochondrial oxygen metabolism in primary human lens epithelial cells: Association with age, diabetes and glaucoma","volume":"97","author":"Kubota","year":"2016","journal-title":"Free Radic. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"575","DOI":"10.1080\/02713680802167554","article-title":"Hyperoxia and thyroxine treatment and the relationships between reactive oxygen species generation, mitochondrial membrane potential, and cardiolipin in human lens epithelial cell cultures","volume":"33","author":"Huang","year":"2008","journal-title":"Curr. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"506","DOI":"10.1076\/ceyr.19.6.506.5279","article-title":"Mitochondria of rat lenses: Distribution near and at the sutures","volume":"19","author":"Bantseev","year":"1999","journal-title":"Curr. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"1","article-title":"Partial pressure of oxygen in the human body: A general review","volume":"9","author":"Dunn","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am. J. Blood Res."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"H513","article-title":"Local cerebral PO2, PCO2, and blood flow measurements by mass spectrometry","volume":"245","author":"Seylaz","year":"1983","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1221","DOI":"10.1089\/ars.2007.1628","article-title":"Detection and characterization of tumor hypoxia using pO2 histography","volume":"9","author":"Vaupel","year":"2007","journal-title":"Antioxid. Redox Signal."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1239","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1582-4934.2011.01258.x","article-title":"Why is the partial oxygen pressure of human tissues a crucial parameter? Small molecules and hypoxia","volume":"15","author":"Carreau","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Cell. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1007\/s10384-014-0318-4","article-title":"Preserve the (intraocular) environment: The importance of maintaining normal oxygen gradients in the eye","volume":"58","author":"Beebe","year":"2014","journal-title":"Jpn. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1016\/0891-5849(91)90173-Z","article-title":"Is the lens canned?","volume":"11","author":"Eaton","year":"1991","journal-title":"Free Radic. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1007\/s00249-014-1004-7","article-title":"Properties of membranes derived from the total lipids extracted from clear and cataractous lenses of 61\u201370-year-old human donors","volume":"44","author":"Mainali","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. Biophys. J."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"3938","article-title":"Regional and age-dependent differences in the phospholipid composition of human lens membranes","volume":"35","author":"Borchman","year":"1994","journal-title":"Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbalip.2008.04.002","article-title":"Human lens lipids differ markedly from those of commonly used experimental animals","volume":"1781","author":"Deeley","year":"2008","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemphyslip.2003.12.003","article-title":"Sphingolipids in human lens membranes: An update on their composition and possible biological implications","volume":"129","author":"Yappert","year":"2004","journal-title":"Chem. Phys. Lipids"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"725","DOI":"10.1016\/S0014-4835(03)00051-4","article-title":"Glycero- versus sphingo-phospholipids: Correlations with human and non-human mammalian lens growth","volume":"76","author":"Yappert","year":"2003","journal-title":"Exp. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exer.2015.01.018","article-title":"Lipid domains in intact fiber-cell plasma membranes isolated from cortical and nuclear regions of human eye lenses of donors from different age groups","volume":"132","author":"Raguz","year":"2015","journal-title":"Exp. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1016\/0005-2760(87)90291-8","article-title":"Age-dependent changes in the distribution and concentration of human lens cholesterol and phospholipids","volume":"917","author":"Li","year":"1987","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1634","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.02-0786","article-title":"Isolation and Lipid Characterization of Cholesterol-Enriched Fractions in Cortical and Nuclear Human Lens Fibers","volume":"44","author":"Rujoi","year":"2003","journal-title":"Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1337","DOI":"10.3109\/02713688409007421","article-title":"Lens lipids","volume":"3","author":"Zelenka","year":"1984","journal-title":"Curr. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1250","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2010.0302","article-title":"Biological glass: Structural determinants of eye lens transparency","volume":"366","author":"Bassnett","year":"2011","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1337","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmb.2004.07.076","article-title":"Aquaporin-0 membrane junctions form upon proteolytic cleavage","volume":"342","author":"Gonen","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/0014-5793(80)80764-2","article-title":"Lens gap junctions and orthogonal arrays are unrelated","volume":"111","author":"Kistler","year":"1980","journal-title":"FEBS Lett."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.embor.7400858","article-title":"The supramolecular architecture of junctional microdomains in native lens membranes","volume":"8","author":"Buzhynskyy","year":"2007","journal-title":"EMBO Rep."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"729","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejcb.2006.03.006","article-title":"Structural and immunocytochemical alterations in eye lens fiber cells from Cx46 and Cx50 knockout mice","volume":"85","author":"Dunia","year":"2006","journal-title":"Eur. J. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1006\/exer.2002.2041","article-title":"Micro-domains of AQP0 in lens equatorial fibers","volume":"75","author":"Zampighi","year":"2002","journal-title":"Exp. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"975","article-title":"Distribution of gap junctions and square array junctions in the mammalian lens","volume":"30","author":"Costello","year":"1989","journal-title":"Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Bukiya, A.N., and Dopico, A.M. (2022). Cholesterol, Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1007\/s12013-017-0812-7","article-title":"Cholesterol Bilayer Domains in the Eye Lens Health: A Review","volume":"75","author":"Widomska","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cell Biochem. Biophys."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1667","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.91.5.1667","article-title":"A collision gradient method to determine the immersion depth of nitroxides in lipid bilayers: Application to spin-labeled mutants of bacteriorhodopsin","volume":"91","author":"Altenbach","year":"1994","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"573","DOI":"10.1016\/S0006-3495(92)81612-0","article-title":"Oxygen diffusion-concentration product in rhodopsin as observed by a pulse ESR spin labeling method","volume":"63","author":"Subczynski","year":"1992","journal-title":"Biophys. J."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exer.2016.03.004","article-title":"Organization of lipids in fiber-cell plasma membranes of the eye lens","volume":"156","author":"Subczynski","year":"2017","journal-title":"Exp. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"502","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exer.2008.08.009","article-title":"Phospholipid composition of the rat lens is independent of diet","volume":"87","author":"Nealon","year":"2008","journal-title":"Exp. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"935","DOI":"10.1007\/s11357-011-9293-6","article-title":"Instability of the cellular lipidome with age","volume":"34","author":"Hughes","year":"2012","journal-title":"Age"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"519","DOI":"10.1016\/0014-4835(91)90169-F","article-title":"Biosynthetic capacity of the human lens upon aging","volume":"53","author":"Vermeer","year":"1991","journal-title":"Exp. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lynnerup, N., Kjeldsen, H., Heegaard, S., Jacobsen, C., and Heinemeier, J. (2008). Radiocarbon dating of the human eye lens crystallines reveal proteins without carbon turnover throughout life. PLoS ONE, 3.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0001529"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1682","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.04-1155","article-title":"Human lens phospholipid changes with age and cataract","volume":"46","author":"Huang","year":"2005","journal-title":"Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"761","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exer.2004.04.004","article-title":"Lens lipids and maximum lifespan","volume":"79","author":"Borchman","year":"2004","journal-title":"Exp. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"600","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-2275(20)34347-9","article-title":"Membrane cholesterol and phospholipid in consecutive concentric sections of human lenses","volume":"26","author":"Li","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ravandeh, M., Coliva, G., Kahlert, H., Azinfar, A., Helm, C.A., Fedorova, M., and Wende, K. (2021). Protective Role of Sphingomyelin in Eye Lens Cell Membrane Model against Oxidative Stress. Biomolecules, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom11020276"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1076\/ceyr.16.4.333.10689","article-title":"Calcium ATPase activity and membrane structure in clear and cataractous human lenses","volume":"16","author":"Paterson","year":"1997","journal-title":"Curr. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"310","article-title":"The biochemical organization of the lens","volume":"102","author":"Harding","year":"1982","journal-title":"Trans. Ophthalmol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/0047-6374(88)90080-2","article-title":"Lipid peroxidation as a possible cause of cataract","volume":"44","author":"Babizhayev","year":"1988","journal-title":"Mech. Ageing Dev."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"887","DOI":"10.3109\/02713688409167206","article-title":"Lipids of human lens fiber cell membranes","volume":"3","author":"Zigman","year":"1984","journal-title":"Curr. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Timsina, R., and Mainali, L. (2021). Association of Alpha-Crystallin with Fiber Cell Plasma Membrane of the Eye Lens Accompanied by Light Scattering and Cataract Formation. Membranes, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/membranes11060447"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"302","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajo.2004.09.046","article-title":"Vitrectomy surgery increases oxygen exposure to the lens: A possible mechanism for nuclear cataract formation","volume":"139","author":"Holekamp","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"925","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exer.2004.01.002","article-title":"Effect of hyperbaric oxygen on guinea pig lens optical quality and on the refractive state of the eye","volume":"78","author":"Bantseev","year":"2004","journal-title":"Exp. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1136\/bjo.68.2.113","article-title":"Nuclear cataract and myopia during hyperbaric oxygen therapy","volume":"68","author":"Palmquist","year":"1984","journal-title":"Br. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1016\/S0014-4835(05)80105-8","article-title":"Nuclear light scattering, disulfide formation and membrane damage in lenses of older guinea pigs treated with hyperbaric oxygen","volume":"60","author":"Giblin","year":"1995","journal-title":"Exp. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1090","DOI":"10.1097\/IAE.0b013e3180654229","article-title":"Microplasmin-induced posterior vitreous detachment affects vitreous oxygen levels","volume":"27","author":"Quiram","year":"2007","journal-title":"Retina"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exer.2008.09.003","article-title":"Enzyme-induced posterior vitreous detachment in the rat produces increased lens nuclear pO2 levels","volume":"88","author":"Giblin","year":"2009","journal-title":"Exp. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.3109\/02713683.2012.760741","article-title":"Oxidative responses induced by pharmacologic vitreolysis and\/or long-term hyperoxia treatment in rat lenses","volume":"38","author":"Li","year":"2013","journal-title":"Curr. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1278","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2010.0300","article-title":"The ageing lens and cataract: A model of normal and pathological ageing","volume":"366","author":"Michael","year":"2011","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"599","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(05)70803-5","article-title":"Age-related cataract","volume":"365","author":"Asbell","year":"2005","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5007","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.19-27535","article-title":"Molecular Processes Implicated in Human Age-Related Nuclear Cataract","volume":"60","author":"Truscott","year":"2019","journal-title":"Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/0014-4835(90)90005-F","article-title":"Glutathione levels in human lens: Regional distribution in different forms of cataract","volume":"50","author":"Pau","year":"1990","journal-title":"Exp. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1159\/000267112","article-title":"Glutathione and glutathione-related enzymes in human cataractous lenses","volume":"23","author":"Xie","year":"1991","journal-title":"Ophthalmic. Res."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"947","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-2275(20)33861-X","article-title":"Physical effects of cholesterol on arterial smooth muscle membranes: Evidence of immiscible cholesterol domains and alterations in bilayer width during atherogenesis","volume":"39","author":"Tulenko","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Lipid. Res."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39380","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M507587200","article-title":"Lipid peroxidation induces cholesterol domain formation in model membranes","volume":"280","author":"Jacob","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1016\/S0005-2736(03)00018-X","article-title":"Direct evidence for cholesterol crystalline domains in biological membranes: Role in human pathobiology","volume":"1610","author":"Tulenko","year":"2003","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1007\/s12013-020-00925-2","article-title":"Hypothetical Pathway for Formation of Cholesterol Microcrystals Initiating the Atherosclerotic Process","volume":"78","author":"Subczynski","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Biochem. Biophys."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.3109\/08820538.2011.570849","article-title":"Inflammation and age-related macular degeneration (AMD)","volume":"26","author":"Telander","year":"2011","journal-title":"Semin. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1016\/j.survophthal.2005.12.001","article-title":"The role of inflammation in the pathogenesis of age-related macular degeneration","volume":"51","author":"Donoso","year":"2006","journal-title":"Surv. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1016\/S1011-1344(01)00227-5","article-title":"Retinal photodamage","volume":"64","author":"Boulton","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Photochem. Photobiol. B"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"599","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1751-1097.1990.tb01972.x","article-title":"Hemoprotein(s) mediate blue light damage in the retinal pigment epithelium","volume":"51","author":"Pautler","year":"1990","journal-title":"Photochem. Photobiol."},{"key":"ref_76","first-page":"851","article-title":"Ultraviolet and green light cause different types of damage in rat retina","volume":"36","author":"Gorgels","year":"1995","journal-title":"Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_77","first-page":"497","article-title":"Rhodopsin-mediated blue-light damage to the rat retina: Effect of photoreversal of bleaching","volume":"42","author":"Grimm","year":"2001","journal-title":"Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1006\/abbi.2001.2411","article-title":"Macular pigments lutein and zeaxanthin as blue light filters studied in liposomes","volume":"391","author":"Junghans","year":"2001","journal-title":"Arch. Biochem. Biophys."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2012.04.019","article-title":"The influence of filtering by the macular carotenoids on contrast sensitivity measured under simulated blue haze conditions","volume":"63","author":"Hammond","year":"2012","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Machida, N., Kosehira, M., and Kitaichi, N. (2020). Clinical Effects of Dietary Supplementation of Lutein with High Bio-Accessibility on Macular Pigment Optical Density and Contrast Sensitivity: A Randomized Double-Blind Placebo-Controlled Parallel-Group Comparison Trial. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12102966"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20813","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.C100032200","article-title":"Light- and guanosine 5\u2019-3-O-(thio)triphosphate-sensitive localization of a G protein and its effector on detergent-resistant membrane rafts in rod photoreceptor outer segments","volume":"276","author":"Seno","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41843","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M207111200","article-title":"Association of a photoreceptor-specific tetraspanin protein, ROM-1, with triton X-100-resistant membrane rafts from rod outer segment disk membranes","volume":"277","author":"Dispoto","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1016\/S0960-9822(02)00691-7","article-title":"Signal-dependent translocation of transducin, RGS9-1-Gbeta5L complex, and arrestin to detergent-resistant membrane rafts in photoreceptors","volume":"12","author":"Nair","year":"2002","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1147","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.04-1207","article-title":"Detailed characterization of the lipid composition of detergent-resistant membranes from photoreceptor rod outer segment membranes","volume":"46","author":"Martin","year":"2005","journal-title":"Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_85","first-page":"1200","article-title":"Lutein and zeaxanthin concentrations in rod outer segment membranes from perifoveal and peripheral human retina","volume":"41","author":"Rapp","year":"2000","journal-title":"Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1016\/0014-4835(91)90261-C","article-title":"Fatty acid and molecular species compositions of phospholipids and diacylglycerols from rat retinal membranes","volume":"52","author":"Stinson","year":"1991","journal-title":"Exp. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/S0039-6257(00)00140-5","article-title":"The role of oxidative stress in the pathogenesis of age-related macular degeneration","volume":"45","author":"Beatty","year":"2000","journal-title":"Surv. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3217","DOI":"10.1194\/jlr.M007518","article-title":"Long-chain and very long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in ocular aging and age-related macular degeneration","volume":"51","author":"Liu","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1016\/0163-7827(89)90011-8","article-title":"Very-long-chain fatty acids from the animal and plant kingdoms","volume":"28","author":"Rezanka","year":"1989","journal-title":"Prog. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2632","DOI":"10.1016\/S0006-3495(00)76502-7","article-title":"Cholesterol dependent recruitment of di22:6-PC by a G protein-coupled receptor into lateral domains","volume":"79","author":"Polozova","year":"2000","journal-title":"Biophys. J."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1257","DOI":"10.1016\/j.freeradbiomed.2006.07.003","article-title":"Distribution of macular xanthophylls between domains in a model of photoreceptor outer segment membranes","volume":"41","author":"Wisniewska","year":"2006","journal-title":"Free Radic. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/j.abb.2010.05.015","article-title":"Location of macular xanthophylls in the most vulnerable regions of photoreceptor outer-segment membranes","volume":"504","author":"Subczynski","year":"2010","journal-title":"Arch. Biochem. Biophys."},{"key":"ref_93","unstructured":"Landrum, J.T., and Bone, R.A. (2004). Carotenoids in Health and Disease, CRC Press. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.nutr.23.011702.073307","article-title":"Biologic mechanisms of the protective role of lutein and zeaxanthin in the eye","volume":"23","author":"Krinsky","year":"2003","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"540s","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/132.3.540S","article-title":"Possible biologic mechanisms for a protective role of xanthophylls","volume":"132","author":"Krinsky","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1080\/10915810290169882","article-title":"Photokeratitis and other phototoxic effects on the cornea and conjunctiva","volume":"21","author":"Cullen","year":"2002","journal-title":"Int. J. Toxicol."}],"container-title":["Antioxidants"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3921\/12\/9\/1783\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T20:53:38Z","timestamp":1760129618000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3921\/12\/9\/1783"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,20]]},"references-count":96,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,9]]}},"alternative-id":["antiox12091783"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/antiox12091783","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-3921"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-3921","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,20]]}}}