{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,29]],"date-time":"2026-07-29T15:14:36Z","timestamp":1785338076932,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":107,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,10]],"date-time":"2024-12-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1733788800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Chang Gung University of Science and Technology Foundation","award":["ZRRPF6N0011"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZRRPF6N0011"]}]},{"name":"Chang Gung University of Science and Technology Foundation","award":["ZRRPF6P0011"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZRRPF6P0011"]}]},{"name":"Chang Gung University of Science and Technology Foundation","award":["CORPF6P0041"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CORPF6P0041"]}]},{"name":"Chang Gung University of Science and Technology Foundation","award":["CORPF6P0042"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CORPF6P0042"]}]},{"name":"Chang Gung University of Science and Technology Foundation","award":["CORPF6P0043"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CORPF6P0043"]}]},{"name":"Chang Gung Medical Research Program Foundation","award":["ZRRPF6N0011"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZRRPF6N0011"]}]},{"name":"Chang Gung Medical Research Program Foundation","award":["ZRRPF6P0011"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZRRPF6P0011"]}]},{"name":"Chang Gung Medical Research Program Foundation","award":["CORPF6P0041"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CORPF6P0041"]}]},{"name":"Chang Gung Medical Research Program Foundation","award":["CORPF6P0042"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CORPF6P0042"]}]},{"name":"Chang Gung Medical Research Program Foundation","award":["CORPF6P0043"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CORPF6P0043"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Antioxidants"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Prostate cancer (PCa), a highly prevalent cancer in men worldwide, is projected to rise in the coming years. As emerging data indicate the carcinogenic effects of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) in lung cancer and other site-specific cancers, there is an urgent need to evaluate the relationship between this environmental risk factor and PCa as a potential target for intervention. The present review provides up-to-date evidence about the impact of airborne PM2.5 pollution on the initiation and progression of PCa. Examining the composition and characteristics of PM2.5 reveals its ability to induce toxic effects, inflammatory injuries, and oxidative damages. Additionally, PM2.5 can attach to endocrine-disrupting chemicals implicated in prostatic carcinogenesis. Considering the potential significance of oxidative stress in the risk of the disease, our review underlines the protective strategies, such as antioxidant-based approaches, for individuals exposed to increased PM2.5 levels. Moreover, the findings call for further research to understand the associations and mechanisms linking PM2.5 exposure to PCa risk as well as to suggest appropriate measures by policymakers, scientific researchers, and healthcare professionals in order to address this global health issue.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox13121505","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,10]],"date-time":"2024-12-10T08:40:10Z","timestamp":1733820010000},"page":"1505","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Deciphering the Liaison Between Fine Particulate Matter Pollution, Oxidative Stress, and Prostate Cancer: Where Are We Now?"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Chiang-Wen","family":"Lee","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Respiratory Care, Chang Gung University of Science and Technology, Chiayi 613, Taiwan"},{"name":"Chronic Diseases and Health Promotion Research Center, Chang Gung University of Science and Technology, Chiayi 613, Taiwan"},{"name":"Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Chiayi 613, Taiwan"},{"name":"Department of Safety Health and Environmental Engineering, Ming Chi University of Technology, New Taipei City 243, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7619-1902","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yao-Chang","family":"Chiang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chronic Diseases and Health Promotion Research Center, Chang Gung University of Science and Technology, Chiayi 613, Taiwan"},{"name":"Department of Nursing, Division of Basic Medical Sciences, Chang Gung University of Science and Technology, Chiayi 613, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Thi Thuy Tien","family":"Vo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Dentistry, Nguyen Tat Thanh University, Ho Chi Minh 70000, Vietnam"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zih-Chan","family":"Lin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chronic Diseases and Health Promotion Research Center, Chang Gung University of Science and Technology, Chiayi 613, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Miao-Ching","family":"Chi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Respiratory Care, Chang Gung University of Science and Technology, Chiayi 613, Taiwan"},{"name":"Chronic Diseases and Health Promotion Research Center, Chang Gung University of Science and Technology, Chiayi 613, Taiwan"},{"name":"Department of Safety Health and Environmental Engineering, Ming Chi University of Technology, New Taipei City 243, Taiwan"},{"name":"Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Chiayi Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Chiayi 613, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mei-Ling","family":"Fang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Environmental Toxin and Emerging-Contaminant Research, Cheng Shiu University, Kaohsiung 833, Taiwan"},{"name":"Super Micro Research and Technology Center, Cheng Shiu University, Kaohsiung 833, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kuo-Ti","family":"Peng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Chiayi 613, Taiwan"},{"name":"College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ming-Horng","family":"Tsai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan"},{"name":"Division of Neonatology and Pediatric Hematology\/Oncology, Department of Pediatrics, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Yunlin 638, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8451-0280","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"I-Ta","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Dentistry, College of Oral Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 110, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.3322\/caac.21834","article-title":"Global cancer statistics 2022: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries","volume":"74","author":"Bray","year":"2024","journal-title":"CA Cancer J. Clin."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1683","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(24)00651-2","article-title":"The Lancet Commission on prostate cancer: Planning for the surge in cases","volume":"403","author":"James","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1075","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(21)00950-8","article-title":"Prostate cancer","volume":"398","author":"Sandhu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.urolonc.2024.06.002","article-title":"A Systematic Review of Family History, Race\/Ethnicity, and Genetic Risk on Prostate Cancer Detection and Outcomes: Considerations in PSA-based Screening","volume":"43","author":"Graham","year":"2024","journal-title":"Urol. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Manisalidis, I., Stavropoulou, E., Stavropoulos, A., and Bezirtzoglou, E. (2020). Environmental and Health Impacts of Air Pollution: A Review. Front. Public Health, 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2020.00014"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e535","DOI":"10.1016\/S2542-5196(22)00090-0","article-title":"Pollution and health: A progress update","volume":"6","author":"Fuller","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Planet. Health"},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2024, October 29). Air Pollution. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/health-topics\/air-pollution#tab=tab_1."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116478","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2024.116478","article-title":"How long-term PM exposure may affect all-site cancer mortality: Evidence from a large cohort in southern China","volume":"280","author":"Tang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Santibanez-Andrade, M., Chirino, Y.I., Gonzalez-Ramirez, I., Sanchez-Perez, Y., and Garcia-Cuellar, C.M. (2019). Deciphering the code between air pollution and disease: The effect of particulate matter on cancer hallmarks. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21010136"},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Straif, K., Cohen, A., and Samet, J. (2013). Air Pollution and Cancer, IARC Scientific Publication No. 161."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, C.W., Vo, T.T.T., Wu, C.Z., Chi, M.C., Lin, C.M., Fang, M.L., and Lee, I.T. (2020). The Inducible Role of Ambient Particulate Matter in Cancer Progression via Oxidative Stress-Mediated Reactive Oxygen Species Pathways: A Recent Perception. Cancers, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers12092505"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3886","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph10093886","article-title":"Pulmonary oxidative stress, inflammation and cancer: Respirable particulate matter, fibrous dusts and ozone as major causes of lung carcinogenesis through reactive oxygen species mechanisms","volume":"10","author":"Valavanidis","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112937","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2019.07.105","article-title":"PM2.5 induces ferroptosis in human endothelial cells through iron overload and redox imbalance","volume":"254","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1080\/10590500802494538","article-title":"Airborne particulate matter and human health: Toxicological assessment and importance of size and composition of particles for oxidative damage and carcinogenic mechanisms","volume":"26","author":"Valavanidis","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Environ. Sci. Health C Environ. Carcinog. Ecotoxicol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2024, October 29). WHO Air Quality Guidelines for Particulate Matter, Ozone, Nitrogen Dioxide and Sulfur Dioxide. Available online: https:\/\/iris.who.int\/bitstream\/handle\/10665\/69477\/WHO_SDE_PHE_OEH_06.02_eng.pdf;sequence=1."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2024, October 29). Ambient (Outdoor) Air Pollution. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/ambient-(outdoor)-air-quality-and-health."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"GBD 2021 Risk Factors Collaborators (2024). Global burden and strength of evidence for 88 risk factors in 204 countries and 811 subnational locations, 1990\u20132021: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021. Lancet, 403, 2162\u20132203."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thangavel, P., Park, D., and Lee, Y.C. (2022). Recent insights into particulate matter (PM(2.5))-mediated toxicity in humans: An overview. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19127511"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e077784","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj-2023-077784","article-title":"Air pollution deaths attributable to fossil fuels: Observational and modelling study","volume":"383","author":"Lelieveld","year":"2023","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"National Research Council (1979). Airborne Particles\/Subcommittee on Airborne Particles, Committee on Medical and Biologic Effects of Environmental Pollutants, Division of Medical Sciences, Assembly of Life Sciences, National Research Council."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maciejczyk, P., Chen, L.C., and Thurston, G. (2021). The Role of Fossil Fuel Combustion Metals in PM2.5 Air Pollution Health Associations. Atmosphere, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos12091086"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1016\/j.freeradbiomed.2019.12.027","article-title":"Non-redox cycling mechanisms of oxidative stress induced by PM metals","volume":"151","author":"Samet","year":"2020","journal-title":"Free Radic. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1399","DOI":"10.3390\/biom5031399","article-title":"Activation of proinflammatory responses in cells of the airway mucosa by particulate matter: Oxidant- and non-oxidant-mediated triggering mechanisms","volume":"5","author":"Refsnes","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biomolecules"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Holme, J.A., Vondr\u00e1\u010dek, J., Machala, M., Lagadic-Gossmann, D., Vogel, C.F.A., Le Ferrec, E., Sparfel, L., and \u00d8vrevik, J. (2023). Lung cancer associated with combustion particles and fine particulate matter (PM2.5)\u2014The roles of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR). Biochem. Pharmacol., 216.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bcp.2023.115801"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"460","DOI":"10.3322\/caac.21632","article-title":"Outdoor air pollution and cancer: An overview of the current evidence and public health recommendations","volume":"70","author":"Turner","year":"2020","journal-title":"CA Cancer J. Clin."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1177\/1757913919891751","article-title":"Long-term exposure to air pollution and the risk of non-lung cancer: A meta-analysis of observational studies","volume":"140","author":"Kim","year":"2020","journal-title":"Perspect. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, H.B., Shim, J.Y., Park, B., and Lee, Y.J. (2018). Long-term exposure to air pollutants and cancer mortality: A meta-analysis of cohort studies. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph15112608"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115328","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2020.115328","article-title":"Air pollution exposure and bladder, kidney and urinary tract cancer risk: A systematic review","volume":"267","author":"Lequy","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.5213\/inj.1734954.477","article-title":"Particulate matter (fine particle) and urologic diseases","volume":"21","author":"Kim","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. Neurourol. J."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13067","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-018-1538-9","article-title":"Air pollution from industrial waste gas emissions is associated with cancer incidences in Shanghai, China","volume":"25","author":"Cong","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2016.01.030","article-title":"The health effects of ambient PM2.5 and potential mechanisms","volume":"128","author":"Feng","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trac.2014.11.006","article-title":"Analysis and occurrence of endocrine-disrupting chemicals in airborne particles","volume":"66","year":"2015","journal-title":"TrAC Trends Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Toni, L., Sabovic, I., Cosci, I., Ghezzi, M., Foresta, C., and Garolla, A. (2019). Testicular cancer: Genes, environment, hormones. Front. Endocrinol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2019.00408"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.canlet.2008.12.011","article-title":"Oxidative stress in prostate cancer","volume":"282","author":"Khandrika","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cancer Lett."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1007\/s40495-023-00344-w","article-title":"Prostate Cancer, Oxidative Stress, and Antioxidant Phytochemicals: A Brief Review","volume":"9","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"Curr. Pharmacol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1134","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.59.7.1134","article-title":"Prostatic cancer: Relationship to suspended particulate air pollution","volume":"59","author":"Winkelstein","year":"1969","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health Nations Health"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107004","DOI":"10.1289\/EHP7246","article-title":"Fine Particulate Matter Exposure and Cancer Incidence: Analysis of SEER Cancer Registry Data from 1992\u20132016","volume":"128","author":"Coleman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e219","DOI":"10.1097\/EE9.0000000000000219","article-title":"Ambient air pollution and prostate cancer risk in a population-based Canadian case-control study","volume":"6","author":"Youogo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"766","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2018.10.183","article-title":"An urban-rural and sex differences in cancer incidence and mortality and the relationship with PM2.5 exposure: An ecological study in the southeastern side of Hu line","volume":"216","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shin, M., Kim, O.J., Yang, S., Choe, S.A., and Kim, S.Y. (2022). Different Mortality Risks of Long-Term Exposure to Particulate Matter across Different Cancer Sites. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19063180"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e265","DOI":"10.1097\/EE9.0000000000000265","article-title":"Additive effects of 10-year exposures to PM(2.5) and NO(2) and primary cancer incidence in American older adults","volume":"7","author":"Wei","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"374","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2017.03.035","article-title":"Spatial variations in ambient ultrafine particle concentrations and the risk of incident prostate cancer: A case-control study","volume":"156","author":"Weichenthal","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117562","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2023.117562","article-title":"The local environment and germline genetic variation predict cancer risk in the UK Biobank prospective cohort","volume":"241","author":"Felici","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"dyae093","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyae093","article-title":"Beyond lung cancer: Air pollution and bladder, breast and prostate cancer incidence","volume":"53","author":"Zick","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"857","DOI":"10.1158\/1055-9965.EPI-23-1413","article-title":"Fine Particulate Matter, Noise Pollution, and Greenspace and Prostate Cancer Risk in the Prostate, Lung, Colorectal, and Ovarian Cancer Screening Trial Cohort","volume":"33","author":"Thomas","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115405","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2023.115405","article-title":"Long-term exposure to fine particulate matter and site-specific cancer mortality: A difference-in-differences analysis in Jiangsu province, China","volume":"222","author":"Fan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113416","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2022.113416","article-title":"Relationships among green space, ambient fine particulate matter, and cancer incidence in Taiwan: A 16-year retrospective cohort study","volume":"212","author":"Huang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119070","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2022.119070","article-title":"Associations between long-term exposure to PM2.5 and site-specific cancer mortality: A nationwide study in Brazil between 2010 and 2018","volume":"302","author":"Yu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yu, P., Xu, R., Li, S., Yue, X., Chen, G., Ye, T., Co\u00ealho, M.S.Z.S., Saldiva, P.H.N., Sim, M.R., and Abramson, M.J. (2022). Exposure to wildfire-related PM2.5 and site-specific cancer mortality in Brazil from 2010 to 2016: A retrospective study. PLoS Med., 19.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1004103"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"767","DOI":"10.1007\/s10552-020-01317-w","article-title":"Cancer mortality risk, fine particulate air pollution, and smoking in a large, representative cohort of US adults","volume":"31","author":"Coleman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cancer Causes Control"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"087013","DOI":"10.1289\/EHP1249","article-title":"Ambient Air Pollution and Cancer Mortality in the Cancer Prevention Study II","volume":"125","author":"Turner","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Sies, H. (1985). Oxidative Stress, Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sies, H. (2020). Oxidative Stress: Concept and Some Practical Aspects. Antioxidants, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox9090852"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1186\/s12964-023-01398-5","article-title":"Interplay of oxidative stress, cellular communication and signaling pathways in cancer","volume":"22","author":"Iqbal","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cell Commun. Signal."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Santib\u00e1\u00f1ez-Andrade, M., Quezada-Maldonado, E.M., Rivera-Pineda, A., Chirino, Y.I., Garc\u00eda-Cuellar, C.M., and S\u00e1nchez-P\u00e9rez, Y. (2023). The Road to Malignant Cell Transformation after Particulate Matter Exposure: From Oxidative Stress to Genotoxicity. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24021782"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1777","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-07-5259","article-title":"Oxidative stress is inherent in prostate cancer cells and is required for aggressive phenotype","volume":"68","author":"Kumar","year":"2008","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1002\/pros.20137","article-title":"Increased Nox1 and hydrogen peroxide in prostate cancer","volume":"62","author":"Lim","year":"2005","journal-title":"Prostate"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128436","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2020.128436","article-title":"Effects of PM2.5 exposure on reproductive system and its mechanisms","volume":"264","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1007\/s42768-019-00021-z","article-title":"Environmentally persistent free radicals in PM2.5: A review","volume":"1","author":"Xu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Waste Dispos. Sustain. Energy"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tshoni, U.A., Mbonane, T.P., and Rathebe, P.C. (2024). The Role of Trace Metals in the Development and Progression of Prostate Cancer. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms251910725"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stec, A.A., Dickens, K.E., Salden, M., Hewitt, F.E., Watts, D.P., Houldsworth, P.E., and Martin, F.L. (2018). Occupational Exposure to Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Elevated Cancer Incidence in Firefighters. Sci. Rep., 8.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-20616-6"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1359","DOI":"10.1159\/000481847","article-title":"Potential Ameliorative Effects of Qing Ye Dan Against Cadmium Induced Prostatic Deficits via Regulating Nrf-2\/HO-1 and TGF-\u03b21\/Smad Pathways","volume":"43","author":"Du","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cell. Physiol. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10409","DOI":"10.18632\/aging.102467","article-title":"The anti-inflammation, anti-oxidative and anti-fibrosis properties of swertiamarin in cigarette smoke exposure-induced prostate dysfunction in rats","volume":"11","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Aging"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16749","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-022-24897-3","article-title":"Is the oxidative potential of components of fine particulate matter surface-mediated?","volume":"30","author":"Baumann","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.4236\/jct.2013.44A005","article-title":"Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons May Contribute for Prostate Cancer Progression","volume":"4","author":"Freitas","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Cancer Ther."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1080\/08958370701665517","article-title":"Evaluating the toxicity of airborne particulate matter and nanoparticles by measuring oxidative stress potential\u2014A workshop report and consensus statement","volume":"20","author":"Ayres","year":"2008","journal-title":"Inhal. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_67","first-page":"2300","article-title":"Expression and clinical significance of the nin one binding protein and p38 MAPK in prostate carcinoma","volume":"6","author":"Che","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Clin. Exp. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Park, S., Kwon, W., Park, J.K., Baek, S.M., Lee, S.W., Cho, G.J., Ha, Y.S., Lee, J.N., Kwon, T.G., and Kim, M.O. (2020). Suppression of cathepsin a inhibits growth, migration, and invasion by inhibiting the p38 MAPK signaling pathway in prostate cancer. Arch. Biochem. Biophys., 688.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.abb.2020.108407"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pungsrinont, T., Kallenbach, J., and Baniahmad, A. (2021). Role of pi3k-akt-mtor pathway as a pro-survival signaling and resistance-mediating mechanism to therapy of prostate cancer. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms222011088"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104558","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jece.2020.104558","article-title":"Endocrine-disrupting compounds: Occurrence, detection methods, effects and promising treatment pathways\u2014A critical review","volume":"9","author":"Vieira","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Environ. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140887","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2023.140887","article-title":"Atmospheric endocrine disruptors: A systematic review on oestrogenic and androgenic activity of particulate matter","volume":"349","author":"Gea","year":"2024","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_72","first-page":"246","article-title":"Deregulation of Cell Proliferation by Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Human Breast Carcinoma MCF-7 Cells Reflects Both Genotoxic and Nongenotoxic Events","volume":"83","author":"Vojtesek","year":"2005","journal-title":"Toxicol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_73","first-page":"3175","article-title":"Expression of Estrogen Receptor-Alpha and Estrogen Receptor-Beta in Normal and Malignant Prostatic Epithelial Cells: Regulation by Methylation and Involvement in Growth Regulation","volume":"60","author":"Lau","year":"2000","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1016\/S0300-483X(00)00143-8","article-title":"Environmental Polycyclic Hydrocarbons affect Androgen Receptor Activation In Vitro","volume":"145","author":"Vingaard","year":"2000","journal-title":"Toxicology"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"924","DOI":"10.1002\/pros.20691","article-title":"JunD Mediates Androgen-Induced Oxidative Stress in Androgen Dependent LNCaP Human Prostate Cancer Cells","volume":"68","author":"Lee","year":"2008","journal-title":"Prostate"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1158\/2159-8290.CD-12-0018","article-title":"Negative Feedback and Adaptive Resistance to the Targeted Therapy of Cancer","volume":"2","author":"Chandarlapaty","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cancer Discov."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marques, R.B., Dit, N.F., Erkens-Schulze, S., van Weerden, W.M., and Jenster, G. (2010). Bypass Mechanisms of the Androgen Receptor Pathway in Therapy-Resistant Prostate Cancer Cell Models. PLoS ONE, 19.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0013500"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.1038\/aja.2010.89","article-title":"Androgen Receptor Signaling and Mutations in Prostate Cancer","volume":"12","author":"Koochekpour","year":"2010","journal-title":"Asian J. Androl."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1016\/j.freeradbiomed.2020.01.179","article-title":"Air pollution and its effects on the immune system","volume":"151","author":"Glencross","year":"2020","journal-title":"Free Radic. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Movassaghi, M., Chung, R., Anderson, C.B., Stein, M., Saenger, Y., and Faiena, I. (2021). Overcoming Immune Resistance in Prostate Cancer: Challenges and Advances. Cancers, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers13194757"},{"key":"ref_81","first-page":"5793817","article-title":"The Influence of Reactive Oxygen Species in the Immune System and Pathogenesis of Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"2020","author":"Tavassolifar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Autoimmune Dis."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1079","DOI":"10.1038\/s41423-022-00902-0","article-title":"Redox regulation of the immune response","volume":"19","author":"Morris","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1431","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.179.3.1431","article-title":"Lack of reactive oxygen species breaks T cell tolerance to collagen type II and allows development of arthritis in mice","volume":"179","author":"Hultqvist","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"582","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.0902352","article-title":"Elevated mitochondrial reactive oxygen species generation affects the immune response via hypoxia-inducible factor-1\u03b1 in long-LivedMclk1 \u00b1 mouse mutants","volume":"184","author":"Wang","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1038\/cr.2010.178","article-title":"Crosstalk of reactive oxygen species and NF-\u03baB signaling","volume":"21","author":"Morgan","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cell Res."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1002\/jcb.10729","article-title":"NF-kappaB activation in human prostate cancer: Important mediator or epiphenomenon?","volume":"91","author":"Suh","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Cell. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Staal, J., and Beyaert, R. (2018). Inflammation and NF-\u03baB Signaling in Prostate Cancer: Mechanisms and Clinical Implications. Cells, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells7090122"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.5487\/TR.2009.25.4.159","article-title":"The role of Nrf2 in cellular innate immune response to inflammatory injury","volume":"25","author":"Kim","year":"2009","journal-title":"Toxicol. Res."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"358","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biotechadv.2017.12.012","article-title":"Nrf2 as regulator of innate immunity: A molecular Swiss army knife!","volume":"36","author":"Battino","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Adv."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yu, S., Khor, T.O., Cheung, K.L., Li, W., Wu, T.Y., Huang, Y., Foster, B.A., Kan, Y.W., and Kong, A.N. (2010). Nrf2 expression is regulated by epigenetic mechanisms in prostate cancer of TRAMP mice. PLoS ONE, 5.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0008579"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prnil.2016.05.002","article-title":"Oxidative stress in prostate cancer patients: A systematic review of case control studies","volume":"4","author":"Oh","year":"2016","journal-title":"Prostate Int."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"516","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2011.06.003","article-title":"Oxidative stress and antioxidant status in prostate cancer patients: Relation to Gleason score, treatment and bone metastasis","volume":"65","author":"Battisti","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biomed. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_93","unstructured":"Akanji, M.A., Fatinukun, H.D., Rotimi, D.E., Afolabi, B.L., and Adeyemi, O.S. (2020). The Two Sides of Dietary Antioxidants in Cancer Therapy. Antioxidants\u2014Benefits, Sources, Mechanisms of Action, IntechOpen."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"440","DOI":"10.1093\/jnci\/90.6.440","article-title":"Prostate cancer and supplementation with alpha-tocopherol and beta-carotene: Incidence and mortality in a controlled trial","volume":"90","author":"Heinonen","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Natl. Cancer Inst."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1006118628183","article-title":"Diet, androgens, oxidative stress and prostate cancer susceptibility","volume":"17","author":"Fleshner","year":"1998","journal-title":"Cancer Metastasis Rev."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1338","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.293.11.1338","article-title":"Effects of long-term vitamin E supplementation on cardiovascular events and cancer: A randomized controlled trial","volume":"293","author":"Lonn","year":"2005","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1093\/jnci\/djj050","article-title":"Supplemental and dietary vitamin E, \u03b2-carotene, and vitamin C intakes and prostate cancer risk","volume":"98","author":"Kirsh","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Natl. Cancer Inst."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"328","DOI":"10.1002\/pros.22573","article-title":"Phase 3 clinical trial investigating the effect of selenium supplementation in men at high-risk for prostate cancer","volume":"73","author":"Algotar","year":"2013","journal-title":"Prostate"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114515004249","article-title":"Intake of dietary antioxidants is inversely associated with biomarkers of oxidative stress among men with prostate cancer","volume":"115","author":"Vance","year":"2016","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rago, V., and Di Agostino, S. (2023). Novel Insights into the Role of the Antioxidants in Prostate Pathology. Antioxidants, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox12020289"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1365","DOI":"10.21873\/anticanres.16932","article-title":"Breath of Danger: Unveiling PM2.5\u2019s Stealthy Impact on Cancer Risks","volume":"44","author":"Mokbel","year":"2024","journal-title":"Anticancer Res."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1186\/s12931-023-02490-7","article-title":"Protective effects of inhaled antioxidants against air pollution-induced pathological responses","volume":"24","author":"Schichlein","year":"2023","journal-title":"Respir. Res."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1093\/annonc\/mdx001","article-title":"Efficacy of androgen deprivation therapy and the role of oxidative stress","volume":"28","author":"Price","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ann. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2513","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-9440(10)63606-1","article-title":"Androgenic regulation of oxidative stress in the rat prostate: Involvement of NAD(P)H oxidases and antioxidant defense machinery during prostatic involution and regrowth","volume":"163","author":"Tam","year":"2003","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1002\/mc.22255","article-title":"ROS signaling by NADPH oxidase 5 modulates the proliferation and survival of prostate carcinoma cells","volume":"55","author":"Koziel","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mol. Carcinog."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2017.06.028","article-title":"Exploring pathways linking greenspace to health: Theoretical and methodological guidance","volume":"158","author":"Markevych","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2016.10.024","article-title":"Residential greenness and risk of prostate cancer: A case-control study in Montreal, Canada","volume":"98","author":"Demoury","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Int."}],"container-title":["Antioxidants"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3921\/13\/12\/1505\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T16:51:24Z","timestamp":1760115084000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3921\/13\/12\/1505"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,10]]},"references-count":107,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12]]}},"alternative-id":["antiox13121505"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/antiox13121505","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-3921"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-3921","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,10]]}}}