{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,8]],"date-time":"2026-09-08T11:39:38Z","timestamp":1788867578919,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,8]],"date-time":"2025-08-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1754611200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Ministry of Education of the Republic of Korea","award":["NRF-2022R1A2C1091570"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NRF-2022R1A2C1091570"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003725","name":"National Research Foundation of Korea","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NRF-2022R1A2C1091570"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NRF-2022R1A2C1091570"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003725","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Antioxidants"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study comprehensively evaluated how the inclusion of the inner shell and the choice of extraction method influence the antioxidant activity of Quercus Fructus (QF). Eight QF extracts were prepared with or without the inner shell using stirring (S) and ultrasonication (U) with 80% ethanol, boiled water (B) and autoclave (A) with distilled water. Among them, the ultrasonication extract with inner shell (IU) exhibited the highest antioxidant capacity, showing strong DPPH radical scavenging (228.8 mg TEAC\/g), ABTS activity (162.9 mg TEAC\/g), reducing power (380.9 mg TERP\/g), and SOD-like activity (38.1%). HPLC-UV profiling identified quercetin-7-glucoside (Q7G) as a major detectable compound, although several polar phenolics remained unidentified. In LPS-stimulated Raw 264.7 cells, IU significantly suppressed nitric oxide production and iNOS expression without cytotoxicity. Additionally, IU treatment markedly reduced ROS accumulation in H2O2-exposed zebrafish embryos. These findings suggest that including the inner shell with ultrasonication extraction synergistically enhances QF\u2019s antioxidant efficacy, suggesting a practical strategy for maximizing the functional potential of QF in natural antioxidant development.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox14080976","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,8]],"date-time":"2025-08-08T15:30:52Z","timestamp":1754667052000},"page":"976","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Optimizing Antioxidant and Biological Activities of Quercus Fructus: Synergistic Role of Inner Shell and Extraction Methods"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-6099-3273","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jin Gyeom","family":"Kim","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Food and Nutrition, Chungnam National University, Daehak-ro 99, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34134, Republic of Korea"},{"name":"Glocal Life-Care Convergence Program, Interdisciplinary Education Center for the Innovative Next Generation Leaders in Glocal Lifecare, Chungnam National University, Daehak-ro 99, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34134, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hajeong","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Food and Nutrition, Chungnam National University, Daehak-ro 99, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34134, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6084-7700","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Beulah Favour","family":"Ortutu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Food and Nutrition, Chungnam National University, Daehak-ro 99, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34134, Republic of Korea"},{"name":"Glocal Life-Care Convergence Program, Interdisciplinary Education Center for the Innovative Next Generation Leaders in Glocal Lifecare, Chungnam National University, Daehak-ro 99, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34134, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Woochan","family":"Jeong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Food and Nutrition, Chungnam National University, Daehak-ro 99, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34134, Republic of Korea"},{"name":"Glocal Life-Care Convergence Program, Interdisciplinary Education Center for the Innovative Next Generation Leaders in Glocal Lifecare, Chungnam National University, Daehak-ro 99, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34134, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Su-In","family":"Yoon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Center for Microbiome-Brain Disorders, Chungnam University, Daehak-ro 99, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34134, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Inhwa","family":"Han","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Food and Nutrition, Chungnam National University, Daehak-ro 99, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34134, Republic of Korea"},{"name":"Glocal Life-Care Convergence Program, Interdisciplinary Education Center for the Innovative Next Generation Leaders in Glocal Lifecare, Chungnam National University, Daehak-ro 99, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34134, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9265-2409","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jin Ah","family":"Cho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Food and Nutrition, Chungnam National University, Daehak-ro 99, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34134, Republic of Korea"},{"name":"Glocal Life-Care Convergence Program, Interdisciplinary Education Center for the Innovative Next Generation Leaders in Glocal Lifecare, Chungnam National University, Daehak-ro 99, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34134, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7204","DOI":"10.18632\/oncotarget.23208","article-title":"Inflammatory responses and inflammation-associated diseases in organs","volume":"9","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Oncotarget"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molcel.2014.03.030","article-title":"Stress, inflammation, and defense of homeostasis","volume":"54","author":"Chovatiya","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mol. Cell"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"935","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2010.02.043","article-title":"Anti-inflammatory Agents: Present and Future","volume":"140","author":"Dinarello","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"741","DOI":"10.1007\/s00011-022-01584-0","article-title":"Inflammatory biomarkers on an LPS-induced RAW 264.7 cell model: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"71","author":"Facchin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Inflamm. Res."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"An, T., Tang, M., and An, J. (2022). Ethnological approach to acorn utilization in prehistory: A case study of acorn mook making in South Korea. Front. Plant Sci., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpls.2022.996649"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"595","DOI":"10.1089\/jmf.2022.K.0128","article-title":"Ethanol-Extracted Acorn Induces Anti-Inflammatory Effects in Human Keratinocyte and Production of Hyaluronic Acid in Human Fibroblasts","volume":"26","author":"Lee","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Med. Food"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.9799\/ksfan.2016.29.1.058","article-title":"A Review of the General Characteristics and Functions of Acorns","volume":"29","author":"Haejong","year":"2016","journal-title":"Korean J. Food Nutr."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6636","DOI":"10.1039\/D1FO04043J","article-title":"Unveiling the phytochemical nature of acorns: The relevance of dehusking","volume":"13","author":"Castro","year":"2022","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaap.2015.09.019","article-title":"Discriminative analysis of free and esterified gallic acids in acorn shells by thermochemolysis-gas chromatography\/mass spectrometry in the presence of organic alkalis","volume":"116","author":"Ishida","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Anal. Appl. Pyrol"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tifs.2021.01.029","article-title":"Oak trees (spp.) as a source of extracts with biological activities: A narrative review","volume":"109","author":"Morales","year":"2021","journal-title":"Trends Food Sci. Tech."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1920683","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/1920683","article-title":"Medicinal Uses, Phytochemistry, and Pharmacological Activities of Quercus Species","volume":"2020","author":"Taib","year":"2020","journal-title":"Evid. Based Complement. Altern. Med."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1183","DOI":"10.1007\/s10068-016-0188-2","article-title":"Antioxidant and anti-adipogenic activities of acorn shells","volume":"25","author":"Youn","year":"2016","journal-title":"Food Sci. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Noguiera, A. (2022). Acorns as a Functional Food for Cardiovascular Disease Prevention: Chemical Characterization and Bioactivity. Biol. Life Sci. Forum, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/Foods2022-12966"},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"171","article-title":"Effect of Chestnut and Acorn on Lipid Metabolism, Antioxidative Capacity and Antithrombotic Capacity in Rats","volume":"35","author":"Lee","year":"2002","journal-title":"Korean J. Food Nutr."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arabjc.2016.09.018","article-title":"Bioactive components and antioxidant activities of oak cup crude extract and its four partially purified fractions by HPD-100 macroporous resin chromatography","volume":"12","author":"Yin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Arab. J. Chem."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3780","DOI":"10.1002\/fsn3.3362","article-title":"Effect of different extraction methods on antioxidant properties and encapsulation efficiency of anthocyanin of pomegranate peel","volume":"11","author":"Zahed","year":"2023","journal-title":"Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Athanasiadis, V., Chatzimitakos, T., Kotsou, K., Kalompatsios, D., Bozinou, E., and Lalas, S.I. (2023). Polyphenol Extraction from Food (by) Products by Pulsed Electric Field: A Review. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms242115914"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Plaskova, A., and Mlcek, J. (2023). New insights of the application of water or ethanol-water plant extract rich in active compounds in food. Front. Nutr., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2023.1118761"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"776","DOI":"10.1021\/je700633w","article-title":"Solubility of gallic acid in methanol, ethanol, water, and ethyl acetate","volume":"53","author":"Daneshfar","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Chem. Eng. Data"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfda.2013.11.001","article-title":"Effect of extraction solvent on total phenol content, total flavonoid content, and antioxidant activity of Limnophila aromatica","volume":"22","author":"Do","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Food Drug Anal."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100087","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fufo.2021.100087","article-title":"Extraction and characterization of polyphenolic compounds and potassium hydroxycitrate from Hibiscus sabdariffa","volume":"4","author":"Singh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Future Foods"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Klongdee, S., and Klinkesorn, U. (2022). Optimization of accelerated aqueous ethanol extraction to obtain a polyphenol-rich crude extract from rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum L.) peel as natural antioxidant. Sci. Rep., 12.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-25818-7"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.17495\/easdl.2023.2.33.1.21","article-title":"Physiological activities of cep mushroom by extraction with stirring or ultrasound","volume":"33","author":"Cho","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. East. Asian Soc. Diet. Life"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"582","DOI":"10.9721\/KJFST.2024.56.5.582","article-title":"Quality characteristics and physiological activity of jelly with hot water extract of Baekjung wheat sprout during storage","volume":"56","author":"Hong","year":"2024","journal-title":"Korean J. Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17543","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jafc.3c04022","article-title":"The Chemistry Behind the Folin-Ciocalteu Method for the Estimation of (Poly)phenol Content in Food: Total Phenolic Intake in a Mediterranean Dietary Pattern","volume":"71","author":"Perez","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1016\/S0076-6879(99)99017-1","article-title":"Analysis of total phenols and other oxidation substrates and antioxidants by means of Folin-Ciocalteu reagent","volume":"299","author":"Singleton","year":"1999","journal-title":"Methods Enzymol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.3390\/crops3020012","article-title":"Antioxidant Potential Profile of Portuguese Wheat (Bread and Durum) Germplasm","volume":"3","author":"Aires","year":"2023","journal-title":"Crops"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2004.01.010","article-title":"Total antioxidant activity and phenolic content in selected vegetables","volume":"87","author":"Ismail","year":"2004","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.3746\/pnf.2013.18.3.188","article-title":"Evaluation of the Antioxidant Capacity and Phenolic Content of Agriophyllum pungens Seed Extracts from Mongolia","volume":"18","author":"Birasuren","year":"2013","journal-title":"Prev. Nutr. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/S0023-6438(95)80008-5","article-title":"Use of a free radical method to evaluate antioxidant activity","volume":"28","author":"Cuvelier","year":"1995","journal-title":"LWT-Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1016\/S0076-6879(99)99037-7","article-title":"Screening of dietary carotenoids and carotenoid-rich fruit extracts for antioxidant activities applying 2, 2\u2032-azinobis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) radical cation decolorization assay","volume":"299","author":"Nicoletta","year":"1999","journal-title":"Methods Enzymol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1231","DOI":"10.1016\/S0891-5849(98)00315-3","article-title":"Antioxidant activity applying an improved ABTS radical cation decolorization assay","volume":"26","author":"Re","year":"1999","journal-title":"Free Radic. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.5264\/eiyogakuzashi.44.307","article-title":"Studies on products of browning reaction antioxidative activities of products of browning reaction prepared from glucosamine","volume":"44","author":"Oyaizu","year":"1986","journal-title":"Jpn. J. Nutr. Diet."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1432-1033.1974.tb03714.x","article-title":"Involvement of the superoxide anion radical in the autoxidation of pyrogallol and a convenient assay for superoxide dismutase","volume":"47","author":"Marklund","year":"1974","journal-title":"Eur. J. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"OECD (2025). Test No. 236: Fish Embryo Acute Toxicity (FET) Test. OECD Guidelines for the Testing of Chemicals, Section 2, OECD."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"An, M.Y., Lee, S.R., Hwang, H.J., Yoon, J.G., Lee, H.J., and Cho, J.A. (2021). Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Korean Black Ginseng Extract through ER Stress Pathway. Antioxidants, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox10010062"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, C.H., Lai, Y.J., Chen, L.N., Hung, Y.H., Tu, H.Y., and Cheng, C.J. (2024). Label-Free Three-Dimensional Morphological Characterization of Cell Death Using Holographic Tomography. Sensors, 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/s24113435"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1016\/j.semcancer.2005.04.004","article-title":"Inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in tumor biology: The two sides of the same coin","volume":"15","author":"Lechner","year":"2005","journal-title":"Semin. Cancer Biol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Taib, M., Damiri, F., Rezzak, Y., Berrada, M., and Bouyazza, L. (2023). Chemical Composition, Nutritional, and antioxidant activity of two Quercus species acorns growing in Morocco. Lett. Appl. Nanobiosci., 13.","DOI":"10.33263\/LIANBS131.020"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120686","DOI":"10.1016\/j.indcrop.2025.120686","article-title":"Exploring acorn shells: Phenolic composition and bioactive potential for sustainable valorization","volume":"226","author":"Mateus","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ind. Crops Prod."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"947","DOI":"10.1111\/1541-4337.12220","article-title":"A New Age for Quercus spp. Fruits: Review on Nutritional and Phytochemical Composition and Related Biological Activities of Acorns","volume":"15","author":"Vinha","year":"2016","journal-title":"Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1016\/j.indcrop.2019.05.008","article-title":"evaluation of the therapeutic potential of Anatolian kermes oak (L.) as an alternative wound healing agent","volume":"137","author":"Anlas","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ind. Crops Prod."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/j.indcrop.2018.10.082","article-title":"Neuroprotective potential and phytochemical composition of acorn fruits","volume":"128","author":"Gezici","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ind. Crops Prod."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cbi.2016.10.015","article-title":"Semisynthetic flavonoid 7-O-galloylquercetin activates Nrf2 and induces Nrf2-dependent gene expression in RAW264.7 and Hepa1c1c7 cells","volume":"260","author":"Roubalova","year":"2016","journal-title":"Chem. Biol. Interact."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4083","DOI":"10.1021\/jf0103572","article-title":"Determination of antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of Rumex crispus L. extracts","volume":"49","author":"Mavi","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3409","DOI":"10.1007\/s10311-021-01217-8","article-title":"Techniques and modeling of polyphenol extraction from food: A review","volume":"19","author":"Sridhar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Chem. Lett."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107158","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ultsonch.2024.107158","article-title":"Application progress of ultrasound in the production and processing of traditional Chinese herbal medicines","volume":"111","author":"Yang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ultrason. Sonochem"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pedisi\u0107, S.\u010c.P., Pavle\u0161i\u0107, T., Vah\u010di\u0107, N., Elez Garofuli\u0107, I., Zori\u0107, Z., Dragovi\u0107-Uzelac, V., and Repaji\u0107, M. (2023). Efficiency of Microwave and Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction as a Green Tool for Polyphenolic Isolation from Monofloral Honeys. Processes, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/pr11113141"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"030012","DOI":"10.1063\/5.0122022","article-title":"Comparison of quercetin yield obtained using convectional and ultrasound-assisted extraction from Chromolaena Odorata","volume":"2669","author":"Kamal","year":"2023","journal-title":"AIP Conf. Proc."}],"container-title":["Antioxidants"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3921\/14\/8\/976\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:26:50Z","timestamp":1760034410000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3921\/14\/8\/976"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,8]]},"references-count":49,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8]]}},"alternative-id":["antiox14080976"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/antiox14080976","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-3921"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-3921","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,8]]}}}