{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,10]],"date-time":"2025-11-10T10:59:36Z","timestamp":1762772376456,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":62,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,7]],"date-time":"2025-11-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1762473600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003569","name":"Ministry of Food and Drug Safety","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["21153MFDS604"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["21153MFDS604"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003569","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Antioxidants"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Airborne particulate matter (PM), particularly PM2.5, contributes to pulmonary injury by inducing oxidative stress and inflammation. Thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.) contains bioactive compounds with anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and expectorant properties. Here, we evaluated the dose-dependent protective effects of thyme extract (TV) against PM2.5-induced pulmonary injury in mice, using dexamethasone (DEXA) as a reference anti-inflammatory drug. Subacute pulmonary injury was induced in male Balb\/c mice via intranasal administration of PM2.5 (1 mg\/kg, twice at 48 h intervals). Mice received oral TV (50, 100, or 200 mg\/kg) or DEXA (0.75 mg\/kg) daily for 10 days. Assessments included lung weight, serum AST\/ALT, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) leukocyte counts, cytokines (TNF-\u03b1, IL-6), chemokines, oxidative stress markers (ROS, lipid peroxidation, antioxidant enzymes), histopathology, and mRNA expression of genes related to inflammation (PI3K\/Akt, MAPK, and NF-\u03baB), mucus production (MUC5AC, MUC5B), and apoptosis (Bcl-2, Bax). Exposure to PM2.5 caused oxidative stress, pulmonary inflammation, mucus hypersecretion, and histopathological changes. TV treatment dose-dependently reduced leukocyte infiltration, cytokine\/chemokine release, ROS generation, and mucus overproduction, while enhancing antioxidant defenses and improving tissue pathology. Effects were comparable but slightly less potent than DEXA. Notably, unlike DEXA, TV reduced mucus hyperplasia and enhanced expectorant activity. No hepatotoxicity was observed. These results indicate that thyme extract could serve as a promising natural candidate for alternative respiratory therapeutics or functional food development.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox14111343","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,10]],"date-time":"2025-11-10T08:57:55Z","timestamp":1762765075000},"page":"1343","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Protective Effects of Thyme Leaf Extract Against Particulate Matter-Induced Pulmonary Injury in Mice"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Jae-Kyoung","family":"Lee","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Hongsamdan Co., Ltd., Gongju 32511, Republic of Korea"},{"name":"Department of Food Regulatory Science, College of Science and Technology, Korea University, Sejong 30019, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6830-2588","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Khawaja Muhammad Imran","family":"Bashir","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Seafood Science and Technology, The Institute of Marine Industry, Gyeongsang National University, Tongyeong 53064, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hye-Rim","family":"Park","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nutracore Co., Ltd., Suwon 16514, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jin-Gwan","family":"Kwon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nutracore Co., Ltd., Suwon 16514, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Beom-Rak","family":"Choi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nutracore Co., Ltd., Suwon 16514, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8151-6054","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jae-Suk","family":"Choi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Seafood Science and Technology, The Institute of Marine Industry, Gyeongsang National University, Tongyeong 53064, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1269-3804","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sae-Kwang","family":"Ku","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anatomy and Histology, College of Korean Medicine, Daegu Haany University, Gyeongsan 38610, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2019.02.016","article-title":"Beijing urban particulate matter-induced injury and inflammation in human lung epithelial cells and the protective effects of fucosterol from Sargassum binderi (Sonder ex J. 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