{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T11:12:45Z","timestamp":1791976365750,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":75,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,28]],"date-time":"2025-11-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1764288000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Antioxidants"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) associated with high-fat diet (HFD) intake involves oxidative stress, inflammation, apoptosis, and genotoxicity. Carvacrol, a natural monoterpenoid phenol, exhibits potent antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and cytoprotective properties, but its clinical application is limited by poor solubility and bioavailability. Chitosan nanoparticles, known for their biocompatibility and ability to enhance drug delivery, offer a promising nanotherapeutic platform for carvacrol delivery in NAFLD. Given the limited therapeutic options for NAFLD, there is a growing interest in nanotherapeutic strategies to enhance the delivery and efficacy of natural antioxidants. This study examined carvacrol-loaded chitosan nanoparticles (CRV-CNPs) in HFD-induced NAFLD. Sixty rats were assigned to six groups: control, CRV-treated (100 mg\/kg), CRV-CNP-treated (100 mg\/kg), HFD-fed, and two combination groups receiving HFD with either CRV or CRV-CNPs (100 mg\/kg) for six weeks after 14 weeks on HFD. Liver function, metabolic markers, oxidative stress parameters, antioxidant enzyme levels, inflammatory and fibrotic mediators, apoptotic gene expression, genotoxicity indices, and histopathological changes were evaluated. CRV-CNPs showed greater efficacy than free carvacrol in ameliorating hepatic dysfunction and metabolic disturbances in HFD-fed rats. CRV-CNPs significantly reduced malondialdehyde, upregulated Nrf2, and elevated hepatic glutathione peroxidase, superoxide dismutase, catalase, and reduced glutathione. Inflammatory markers (NF-\u03baB, iNOS, IL-1\u03b2, CRP) and transforming growth factor-beta were suppressed. Pro-apoptotic genes (Bax, Caspase-3) were downregulated, while antiapoptotic Bcl-2 was upregulated. CRV-CNPs also reduced DNA fragmentation and 8-hydroxy-2\u2032-deoxyguanosine levels, indicating strong antigenotoxic effects. Histopathological and ultrastructural assessments revealed mitigated steatosis, preserved hepatic architecture, and maintained mitochondrial integrity. In conclusion, CRV-CNPs provide potent hepatoprotection by targeting oxidative stress, inflammation, apoptosis, and genotoxicity in NAFLD, demonstrating enhanced bioavailability, solubility, and sustained release, which support their potential as an advanced nanotherapeutic strategy for NAFLD management.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox14121432","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,1]],"date-time":"2025-12-01T09:34:37Z","timestamp":1764581677000},"page":"1432","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Carvacrol-Loaded Chitosan Nanoparticles as a Multifunctional Nanotherapeutic Strategy Targeting Oxidative Stress, Inflammation, Apoptosis, and Genotoxicity in Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-1855-843X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"M.","family":"Alfawaz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Laboratory Technology, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Northern Border University, Arar 91431, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ekramy M.","family":"Elmorsy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Health Research, Northern Border University, Arar 73213, Saudi Arabia"},{"name":"Department of Forensic Medicine and Clinical Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine, Mansoura University, Mansoura 35516, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-0057-5672","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ahmad Najem","family":"Alshammari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Laboratory Technology, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Northern Border University, Arar 91431, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9596-8086","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Noor A.","family":"Hakim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Nutrition, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2018-4444","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Najlaa M. M.","family":"Jawad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Nutrition, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Soha A.","family":"Hassan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Applied Health Sciences Technology, October 6 University, 6th of October 12585, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1252-8403","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Manal S.","family":"Fawzy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Health Research, Northern Border University, Arar 73213, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Safya E.","family":"Esmaeel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44519, Egypt"},{"name":"Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, Northern Border University, Arar 91431, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S5","DOI":"10.3350\/cmh.2022.0424","article-title":"Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: Definition and subtypes","volume":"29","author":"Han","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin. 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