{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,3]],"date-time":"2026-09-03T14:36:18Z","timestamp":1788446178513,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":56,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,25]],"date-time":"2026-04-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1777075200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Antioxidants"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Alterations in sphingolipids (SLs), oxylipins (OLs) and cytokines (CKs) are central to neuroinflammation. However, the effects of low doses Fumonisins B (FBs) on these analytes in the avian brain remain unclear.This study investigated SLs, OLs, CKs, and the activities of phospholipase A2c (PLA2c) and cyclooxygenase 2 (COX2) in the brains of chickens exposed to FB at a nominally safe dose of 14.6 mg FB1 + FB2\/kg for 14 and 21 days. Targeted LC-MS\/MS analyses revealed that FB exposure increased brain concentrations of sphingosine, N-acetyl-sphingosine, sphingosine 1-phosphate (So1P), ceramides (Cers), and sphingomyelins (SM). The Cer:SM ratio was elevated at 14 days but normalized by 21 days, whereas the So1P:Cer ratio rose at 14 days and continued to increase at 21 days. These changes coincided with elevated PLA2c and COX2 activities. OL profiling indicated a modest rise in pro-inflammatory arachidonic acid-derived COX metabolites at 14 days, while anti-inflammatory OLs derived from COX and lipoxygenase (LOX) pathways, including PGE2, 15-HETE, and 17-HDHA, increased significantly at 21 days. In contrast, the levels of CKs changed only slightly. Brain concentrations of Fumonisin B1 (FB1) indicated increased blood\u2013brain barrier permeability.These findings highlight a key role of Cers in modulating OL production in FB neurotoxicity.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox15050546","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T09:46:11Z","timestamp":1777455971000},"page":"546","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["A Nominally Safe Dose of Fumonisins Induces Mild Neuroinflammation in Chickens by Targeting Sphingolipids and Oxylipins but Not Cytokines"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9777-3784","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Philippe","family":"Guerre","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"IHAP, ENVT, INRAE, Universit\u00e9 de Toulouse, 31076 Toulouse, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-2986-5057","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elodie","family":"Lassallette","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IHAP, ENVT, INRAE, Universit\u00e9 de Toulouse, 31076 Toulouse, France"},{"name":"Olmix S.A., ZA du Haut du Bois, 56580 Br\u00e9han, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Didier","family":"Tardieu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IHAP, ENVT, INRAE, Universit\u00e9 de Toulouse, 31076 Toulouse, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marie","family":"Berthommier","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IHAP, ENVT, INRAE, Universit\u00e9 de Toulouse, 31076 Toulouse, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9510-4790","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alix Pierron","family":"Baysse","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IHAP, ENVT, INRAE, Universit\u00e9 de Toulouse, 31076 Toulouse, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Anumudu, C.K., Ekwueme, C.T., Uhegwu, C.C., Ejileugha, C., Augustine, J., Okolo, C.A., and Onyeaka, H. (2025). A Review of the Mycotoxin Family of Fumonisins, Their Biosynthesis, Metabolism, Methods of Detection and Effects on Humans and Animals. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26010184"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121065","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2023.121065","article-title":"The Natural Occurrence, Toxicity Mechanisms and Management Strategies of Fumonisin B1: A Review","volume":"320","author":"Gao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102350","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fochx.2025.102350","article-title":"Mycotoxins: A Comprehensive Review of Its Global Trends in Major Cereals, Advancements in Chromatographic Detections and Future Prospectives","volume":"27","author":"Niaz","year":"2025","journal-title":"Food Chem. X"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1183","DOI":"10.1194\/jlr.S093815","article-title":"Ceramide Synthase Inhibition by Fumonisins: A Perfect Storm of Perturbed Sphingolipid Metabolism, Signaling, and Disease","volume":"60","author":"Riley","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1597","DOI":"10.1038\/s42003-024-07231-0","article-title":"Unravelling Neuronal and Glial Differences in Ceramide Composition, Synthesis, and Sensitivity to Toxicity","volume":"7","author":"McInnis","year":"2024","journal-title":"Commun. Biol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126017","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2025.126017","article-title":"Magnolol Protects C6 Glioma Cells against Neurotoxicity of FB1 via Modulating PI3K\/Akt and Mitochondria-Associated Apoptosis Signaling Pathways","volume":"372","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1389","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fct.2005.03.014","article-title":"Endotoxin Exposure Alters Brain and Liver Effects of Fumonisin B1 in BALB\/c Mice: Implication of Blood Brain Barrier","volume":"43","author":"Osuchowski","year":"2005","journal-title":"Food Chem. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111005","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cbi.2024.111005","article-title":"Fumonisins Alone or Mixed with Other Fusariotoxins Increase the C22-24:C16 Sphingolipid Ratios in Chicken Livers, While Deoxynivalenol and Zearalenone Have No Effect","volume":"395","author":"Guerre","year":"2024","journal-title":"Chem. Biol. Interact."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ayub, M., Jin, H.-K., and Bae, J.-S. (2021). Novelty of Sphingolipids in the Central Nervous System Physiology and Disease: Focusing on the Sphingolipid Hypothesis of Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22147353"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113467","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fct.2022.113467","article-title":"Targeted Sphingolipid Analysis in Chickens Suggests Different Mechanisms of Fumonisin Toxicity in Kidney, Lung, and Brain","volume":"170","author":"Guerre","year":"2022","journal-title":"Food Chem. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"885","DOI":"10.2174\/0113894501323980240815113851","article-title":"Prostaglandins in the Inflamed Central Nervous System: Potential Therapeutic Targets","volume":"25","author":"Sheremeta","year":"2024","journal-title":"Curr. Drug Targets"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sun, G.Y., Geng, X., Teng, T., Yang, B., Appenteng, M.K., Greenlief, C.M., and Lee, J.C. (2021). Dynamic Role of Phospholipases A2 in Health and Diseases in the Central Nervous System. Cells, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells10112963"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.3945\/an.114.007732","article-title":"Advances in Our Understanding of Oxylipins Derived from Dietary PUFAs","volume":"6","author":"Gabbs","year":"2015","journal-title":"Adv. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sambra, V., Echeverria, F., Valenzuela, A., Chouinard-Watkins, R., and Valenzuela, R. (2021). Docosahexaenoic and Arachidonic Acids as Neuroprotective Nutrients throughout the Life Cycle. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13030986"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guerre, P., Lassallette, E., Guerre, A., and Tardieu, D. (2024). Effects of the Maximum Recommended Levels of Fumonisins in the EU on Oxylipin Profiles in the Liver and Brain of Chickens. Antioxidants, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox14010019"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-025-03552-x","article-title":"Cytokine Expression Profile in the Human Brain of Older Adults","volume":"22","author":"Godoy","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"659","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-immunol-032713-120145","article-title":"Chemokines and Chemokine Receptors: Positioning Cells for Host Defense and Immunity","volume":"32","author":"Griffith","year":"2014","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.1016\/j.it.2023.06.002","article-title":"Physiological Role of Cytokines in the Regulation of Mammalian Metabolism","volume":"44","author":"Trinh","year":"2023","journal-title":"Trends Immunol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuro.2004.10.001","article-title":"Fumonisin B1-Induced Neurodegeneration in Mice after Intracerebroventricular Infusion Is Concurrent with Disruption of Sphingolipid Metabolism and Activation of Proinflammatory Signaling","volume":"26","author":"Osuchowski","year":"2005","journal-title":"Neurotoxicology"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"981","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuro.2005.05.001","article-title":"Fumonisin B1 Induces Necrotic Cell Death in BV-2 Cells and Murine Cultured Astrocytes and Is Antiproliferative in BV-2 Cells While N2A Cells and Primary Cortical Neurons Are Resistant","volume":"26","author":"Osuchowski","year":"2005","journal-title":"Neurotoxicology"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115697","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2023.115697","article-title":"Targeted Sphingolipidomics Indicates Increased C22-C24:16 Ratios of Virtually All Assayed Classes in Liver, Kidney, and Plasma of Fumonisin-Fed Chickens","volume":"268","author":"Lassallette","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tardieu, D., Travel, A., Metayer, J.-P., Le Bourhis, C., and Guerre, P. (2019). Fumonisin B1, B2 and B3 in Muscle and Liver of Broiler Chickens and Turkey Poults Fed with Diets Containing Fusariotoxins at the EU Maximum Tolerable Level. Toxins, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins11100590"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM), Schrenk, D., Bignami, M., Bodin, L., Chipman, J.K., Del Mazo, J., Grasl-Kraupp, B., Hogstrand, C., Leblanc, J.-C., and Nielsen, E. (2022). Assessment of Information as Regards the Toxicity of Fumonisins for Pigs, Poultry and Horses. EFSA J., 20, e07534.","DOI":"10.2903\/j.efsa.2022.7534"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Laurain, J., Tardieu, D., Matard-Mann, M., Rodriguez, M.A., and Guerre, P. (2021). Fumonisin B1 Accumulates in Chicken Tissues over Time and This Accumulation Was Reduced by Feeding Algo-Clay. Toxins, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins13100701"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lassallette, E., Pierron, A., Tardieu, D., Reymondaud, S., Gallissot, M., Rodriguez, M.A., Coll\u00e9n, P.N., Roy, O., and Guerre, P. (2025). Biomarkers of Fumonisin Exposure in Pigs Fed the Maximum Recommended Level in Europe. Toxins, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins17020069"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14486","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9258(18)98712-0","article-title":"Inhibition of Sphingolipid Biosynthesis by Fumonisins. Implications for Diseases Associated with Fusarium Moniliforme","volume":"266","author":"Wang","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grassi, S., Mauri, L., Prioni, S., Cabitta, L., Sonnino, S., Prinetti, A., and Giussani, P. (2019). Sphingosine 1-Phosphate Receptors and Metabolic Enzymes as Druggable Targets for Brain Diseases. Front. Pharmacol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2019.00807"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alam, S., Afsar, S.Y., Wolter, M.A., Volk, L.M., Mitroi, D.N., Meyer Zu Heringdorf, D., and van Echten-Deckert, G. (2023). S1P Lyase Deficiency in the Brain Promotes Astrogliosis and NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation via Purinergic Signaling. Cells, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells12141844"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chiurchi\u00f9, V., Tiberi, M., Matteocci, A., Fazio, F., Siffeti, H., Saracini, S., Mercuri, N.B., and Sancesario, G. (2022). Lipidomics of Bioactive Lipids in Alzheimer\u2019s and Parkinson\u2019s Diseases: Where Are We?. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23116235"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1038\/s41531-021-00241-3","article-title":"Glucosylceramide in Cerebrospinal Fluid of Patients with GBA-Associated and Idiopathic Parkinson\u2019s Disease Enrolled in PPMI","volume":"7","author":"Huh","year":"2021","journal-title":"npj Park. Dis."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.4103\/1673-5374.346460","article-title":"Functions and Mechanisms of Cytosolic Phospholipase A2 in Central Nervous System Trauma","volume":"18","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neural Regen. Res."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110475","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbc.2025.110475","article-title":"The Critical Roles of Bioactive Sphingolipids in Inflammation","volume":"301","author":"Larrea","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1830","DOI":"10.1038\/s41401-018-0036-4","article-title":"Emerging Roles of Sphingosylphosphorylcholine in Modulating Cardiovascular Functions and Diseases","volume":"39","author":"Ge","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Pharmacol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Duarte, C., Akkaoui, J., Yamada, C., Ho, A., Mao, C., and Movila, A. (2020). Elusive Roles of the Different Ceramidases in Human Health, Pathophysiology, and Tissue Regeneration. Cells, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells9061379"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2124","DOI":"10.1038\/cddis.2016.36","article-title":"Alkaline Ceramidase 3 Deficiency Aggravates Colitis and Colitis-Associated Tumorigenesis in Mice by Hyperactivating the Innate Immune System","volume":"7","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell Death Dis."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1100","DOI":"10.1089\/ars.2024.0794","article-title":"Development of Calcium-Dependent Phospholipase A2 Inhibitors to Target Cellular Senescence and Oxidative Stress in Neurodegenerative Diseases","volume":"41","author":"Hugo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Antioxid. Redox Signal."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1280","DOI":"10.1111\/1750-3841.16869","article-title":"Apocynin Exerts Neuroprotective Effects in Fumonisin B1-Induced Neurotoxicity via Attenuation of Oxidative Stress and Apoptosis in an Animal Model","volume":"89","author":"Krishnaswamy","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16752","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jafc.3c05501","article-title":"Effects of FB1 and HFB1 on Autonomous Exploratory and Spatial Memory and Learning Abilities in Mice","volume":"71","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142300","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2024.142300","article-title":"Magnolol Ameliorates Fumonisin B1-Induced Oxidative Damage and Lipid Metabolism Dysfunction in Astrocyte-like C6 Cells","volume":"359","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1775","DOI":"10.1007\/s10787-025-01719-9","article-title":"Ceramide: A Central Regulator in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease Pathogenesis","volume":"33","author":"Choudhary","year":"2025","journal-title":"Inflammopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108132","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2020.108132","article-title":"Cell-Type- and Brain-Region-Resolved Mouse Brain Lipidome","volume":"32","author":"Fitzner","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3291","DOI":"10.1007\/s00018-016-2228-8","article-title":"Oligodendroglial Membrane Dynamics in Relation to Myelin Biogenesis","volume":"73","author":"Ozgen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tox.2006.06.006","article-title":"Fumonisin B1-Induced Apoptosis in Neuroblastoma, Glioblastoma and Hypothalamic Cell Lines","volume":"225","author":"Naarala","year":"2006","journal-title":"Toxicology"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"933","DOI":"10.1080\/10715760412331273205","article-title":"Oxidative Stress Induced by Fumonisin B1 in Continuous Human and Rodent Neural Cell Cultures","volume":"38","author":"Mikkola","year":"2004","journal-title":"Free Radic. Res."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"380","DOI":"10.1038\/s41420-023-01681-x","article-title":"The Role of Sphingosine-1-Phosphate in Autophagy and Related Disorders","volume":"9","author":"Xiao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cell Death Discov."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shinto, L.H., Raber, J., Mishra, A., Roese, N., and Silbert, L.C. (2022). A Review of Oxylipins in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease and Related Dementias (ADRD): Potential Therapeutic Targets for the Modulation of Vascular Tone and Inflammation. Metabolites, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/metabo12090826"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yamaguchi, A., Botta, E., and Holinstat, M. (2022). Eicosanoids in Inflammation in the Blood and the Vessel. Front. Pharmacol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2022.997403"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gullotta, G.S., Costantino, G., Sortino, M.A., and Spampinato, S.F. (2023). Microglia and the Blood-Brain Barrier: An External Player in Acute and Chronic Neuroinflammatory Conditions. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24119144"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2657","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI97943","article-title":"Resolvins in Inflammation: Emergence of the pro-Resolving Superfamily of Mediators","volume":"128","author":"Serhan","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101165","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plipres.2022.101165","article-title":"Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and Fatty Acid-Derived Lipid Mediators: Recent Advances in the Understanding of Their Biosynthesis, Structures, and Functions","volume":"86","author":"Dyall","year":"2022","journal-title":"Prog. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chistyakov, D.V., Gavrish, G.E., Goriainov, S.V., Chistyakov, V.V., Astakhova, A.A., Azbukina, N.V., and Sergeeva, M.G. (2020). Oxylipin Profiles as Functional Characteristics of Acute Inflammatory Responses in Astrocytes Pre-Treated with IL-4, IL-10, or LPS. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21051780"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2358","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-16080-4","article-title":"N-AS-Triggered SPMs Are Direct Regulators of Microglia in a Model of Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"11","author":"Lee","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6586","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.275.9.6586","article-title":"Spatial Requirements for 15-(R)-Hydroxy-5Z,8Z,11Z,13E-Eicosatetraenoic Acid Synthesis within the Cyclooxygenase Active Site of Murine COX-2\u2014Why Acetylated COX-1 Does Not Synthesize 15-(R)-Hete","volume":"275","author":"Rowlinson","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38640","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.C000587200","article-title":"The Lipids C2- and C16-Ceramide Form Large Stable Channels\u2014Implications for Apoptosis","volume":"275","author":"Siskind","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"957","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2017.06.006","article-title":"Reactive Astrocytes: Production, Function, and Therapeutic Potential","volume":"46","author":"Liddelow","year":"2017","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-022-02565-0","article-title":"Astrocytic and Microglial Cells as the Modulators of Neuroinflammation in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"19","author":"Singh","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflamm."}],"container-title":["Antioxidants"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3921\/15\/5\/546\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T10:25:37Z","timestamp":1777458337000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3921\/15\/5\/546"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,25]]},"references-count":56,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5]]}},"alternative-id":["antiox15050546"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/antiox15050546","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-3921"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-3921","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,25]]}}}