{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,6]],"date-time":"2026-07-06T16:15:28Z","timestamp":1783354528511,"version":"3.54.6"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,6]],"date-time":"2026-07-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1783296000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Antioxidants"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a non-invasive brain stimulation method with neuromodulatory capacity in neurodegenerative diseases such as multiple sclerosis (MS). Its therapeutic value is linked to its activity against oxidative stress by activation of antioxidant defenses. The sex hormones, estrogens (E), progesterone (P) and testosterone (T), have demonstrated their power as adjuvants to TMS, improving cortical excitability. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of these hormones as adjuvants to extremely low-frequency electromagnetic fields (ELFEFs) in the treatment of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), the experimental model of MS. The effect of these hormones as replacement therapy was also evaluated in ovariectomized rats treated with ELFEFs. Sixty-five female Dark Agouti rats were divided into 13 groups (5 rats\/group), in which biomarkers of oxidative stress and the glutathione redox cycle in non-nervous organs (kidney, liver, heart, intestines and blood) were analyzed. The results show that ELFEFs alone are more effective against oxidative stress. However, P and E were more effective than ELFEFs, both as adjuvants and in hormone replacement therapy, in activating the glutathione system. Therefore, it could be concluded that sex hormones play an important role against MS, enhancing the antioxidant effect of ELFEFs.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox15070851","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,6]],"date-time":"2026-07-06T14:56:42Z","timestamp":1783349802000},"page":"851","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Synergy of Extremely Low-Frequency Electromagnetic Fields (ELFEFs) and Sex Hormones Against Oxidative Stress in Multiple Sclerosis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0966-0641","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bego\u00f1a M.","family":"Escribano","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cordoba, 14071 Cordoba, Spain"},{"name":"Maimonides Institute for Research in Biomedicine of Cordoba (IMIBIC), 14004 Cordoba, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8104-9065","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Manuel E.","family":"Valdelvira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Medicine and Nursing, University of Cordoba, 14071 Cordoba, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7908-861X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ana","family":"Mu\u00f1oz-Jurado","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Maimonides Institute for Research in Biomedicine of Cordoba (IMIBIC), 14004 Cordoba, Spain"},{"name":"Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Medicine and Nursing, University of Cordoba, 14071 Cordoba, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Montse","family":"Feij\u00f3o","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Maimonides Institute for Research in Biomedicine of Cordoba (IMIBIC), 14004 Cordoba, Spain"},{"name":"Department of Medical and Surgery Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Nursing, University of Cordoba, 14071 Cordoba, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8604-2054","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eduardo","family":"Ag\u00fcera-Morales","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Maimonides Institute for Research in Biomedicine of Cordoba (IMIBIC), 14004 Cordoba, Spain"},{"name":"Department of Medical and Surgery Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Nursing, University of Cordoba, 14071 Cordoba, Spain"},{"name":"Neurology Service, Reina Sofia University Hospital, 14004 Cordoba, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0571-5147","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Javier","family":"Caballero-Villarraso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Maimonides Institute for Research in Biomedicine of Cordoba (IMIBIC), 14004 Cordoba, Spain"},{"name":"Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Medicine and Nursing, University of Cordoba, 14071 Cordoba, Spain"},{"name":"Analysis Service, Reina Sofia University Hospital, 14004 Cordoba, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9874-7182","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abel","family":"Santamar\u00eda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Sciences, National Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico City 04510, Mexico"},{"name":"Department of Healthcare, Metropolitana Autonomous University, Mexico City 04960, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4392-9122","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Isaac","family":"T\u00fanez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Maimonides Institute for Research in Biomedicine of Cordoba (IMIBIC), 14004 Cordoba, Spain"},{"name":"Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Medicine and Nursing, University of Cordoba, 14071 Cordoba, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2291","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.2010.190314","article-title":"Determinants of the Induction of Cortical Plasticity by Non-Invasive Brain Stimulation in Healthy Subjects","volume":"588","author":"Ridding","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. 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