{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T16:17:27Z","timestamp":1785428247252,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":39,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,22]],"date-time":"2026-07-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1784678400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003725","name":"National Research Foundation of Korea","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["RS-2021-NR059607"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RS-2021-NR059607"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003725","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["RS-2021-NR059607"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RS-2021-NR059607"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/013aysd81","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Antioxidants"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Glutamate excitotoxicity is a key contributor to the pathogenesis of glaucoma, a leading cause of irreversible blindness worldwide; however, the molecular events driving progressive retinal ganglion cell (RGC) loss and axonal degeneration remain incompletely understood, and effective neuroprotective therapies are lacking. Here, we evaluated the preventive potential of K9-C-peptide, a biopolymer-conjugated human C-peptide, in a mouse model of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)-induced retinal neurodegeneration and optic nerve axonal transport impairment, and examined potential mechanisms underlying its protective effects. In NMDA-induced excitotoxic mouse retinas, intracellular Ca2+ elevation mediated NMDA-induced oxidative stress, including both intracellular and mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and lipid peroxidation. NMDA exposure induced activation of M\u00fcller glia and microglia and upregulation of inflammatory cytokines, ultimately leading to RGC death; these effects were attenuated by prolonged intraocular delivery of ROS scavengers. K9-C-peptide significantly reduced NMDA-induced retinal degeneration, including RGC loss and retinal thinning, and preserved optic nerve axonal transport function in both whole-mount retinas and optic nerve longitudinal sections. These protective effects were associated with suppression of NMDA-induced oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and inflammation and reactive gliosis, without altering intracellular Ca2+ levels. Notably, sustained intraocular delivery of human C-peptide conferred robust neuroprotection for at least 3 weeks against NMDA-induced retinal degeneration and optic nerve axonal transport impairment. These findings suggest that K9-C-peptide acts as a long-acting neuroprotective agent that mitigates oxidative stress-driven retinal damage and axonal dysfunction, highlighting its translational potential as a C-peptide-based neuroprotective strategy for retinal glutamate excitotoxicity.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox15070911","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,23]],"date-time":"2026-07-23T01:01:28Z","timestamp":1784768488000},"page":"911","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Biopolymer-Conjugated Human C-Peptide Provides Sustained Neuroprotection and Preserves Axonal Transport in a Mouse Model of NMDA-Induced Retinal Degeneration via Antioxidative Mechanisms"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Ji-Seok","family":"Yoon","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, Kangwon National University School of Medicine, Chuncheon 24341, Kangwon-do, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chan-Hee","family":"Moon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomedical Research Institute, Kangwon National University Hospital, Chuncheon 24289, Kangwon-do, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tae-Yong","family":"Koh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, Kangwon National University School of Medicine, Chuncheon 24341, Kangwon-do, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Woo Ri","family":"Cho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, Kangwon National University School of Medicine, Chuncheon 24341, Kangwon-do, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Juha","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Opthalmology, Kangwon National University School of Medicine, Chuncheon 24341, Kangwon-do, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9487-1020","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Minsoo","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anesthesiology, Kangwon National University School of Medicine, Chuncheon 24341, Kangwon-do, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4219-1787","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kwon-Soo","family":"Ha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, Kangwon National University School of Medicine, Chuncheon 24341, Kangwon-do, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sarkis, S., Chamard, C., Johansen, B., Daien, V., and Michon, F. 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