{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,5]],"date-time":"2026-06-05T01:49:11Z","timestamp":1780624151694,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":73,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,13]],"date-time":"2022-01-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1642032000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Applied Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Adoption of hydrogen energy as an alternative to fossil fuels could be a major step towards decarbonising and fulfilling the needs of the energy sector. Hydrogen can be an ideal alternative for many fields compared with other alternatives. However, there are many potential environmental challenges that are not limited to production and distribution systems, but they also focus on how hydrogen is used through fuel cells and combustion pathways. The use of hydrogen has received little attention in research and policy, which may explain the widely claimed belief that nothing but water is released as a by-product when hydrogen energy is used. We adopt systems thinking and system dynamics approaches to construct a conceptual model for hydrogen energy, with a special focus on the pathways of hydrogen use, to assess the potential unintended consequences, and possible interventions; to highlight the possible growth of hydrogen energy by 2050. The results indicate that the combustion pathway may increase the risk of the adoption of hydrogen as a combustion fuel, as it produces NOx, which is a key air pollutant that causes environmental deterioration, which may limit the application of a combustion pathway if no intervention is made. The results indicate that the potential range of global hydrogen demand is rising, ranging from 73 to 158 Mt in 2030, 73 to 300 Mt in 2040, and 73 to 568 Mt in 2050, depending on the scenario presented.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/app12020781","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,13]],"date-time":"2022-01-13T10:57:37Z","timestamp":1642071457000},"page":"781","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":127,"title":["Hydrogen Energy Demand Growth Prediction and Assessment (2021\u20132050) Using a System Thinking and System Dynamics Approach"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5332-4792","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Talal","family":"Yusaf","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering and Technology, Central Queensland University, Brisbane, QLD 4008, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mohamd","family":"Laimon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Engineering Faculty, Al-Hussein Bin Talal University, Ma\u2019an 71111, Jordan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Waleed","family":"Alrefae","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mechanical Engineering Technology Department, The Public Authority of Applied Education and Training (PAAET), Adailiyah P.O. Box 23167, Kuwait"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kumaran","family":"Kadirgama","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Mechanical and Automotive Engineering Technology, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Pekan 26600, Pahang, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5447-5368","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hayder A.","family":"Dhahad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Technology, Baghdad P.O. Box 18310, Iraq"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6830-3732","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Devarajan","family":"Ramasamy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Pekan 26600, Pahang, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2015-7035","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohd Kamal","family":"Kamarulzaman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Automotive Engineering Centre, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Pekan 26600, Pahang, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3847-5469","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Belal","family":"Yousif","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering, The University Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD 4350, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zohuri, B. (2019). Hydrogen energy. Cryogenics and Liquid Hydrogen Storage: Challenges and Solutions for a Cleaner Future, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-93461-7"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15072","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2019.04.068","article-title":"Hydrogen energy, economy and storage: Review and recommendation","volume":"44","author":"Abe","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5875","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2020.11.014","article-title":"Expected impacts on greenhouse gas and air pollutant emissions due to a possible transition towards a hydrogen economy in German road transport","volume":"46","author":"Weger","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100668","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coche.2020.100668","article-title":"Green hydrogen as an alternative fuel for the shipping industry","volume":"31","author":"Atilhan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113840","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2019.113840","article-title":"Integrated hydrogen liquefaction process with steam methane reforming by using liquefied natural gas cooling system","volume":"255","author":"Yang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27979","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2020.07.079","article-title":"Comparative life cycle energy consumption, carbon emissions and economic costs of hydrogen production from coke oven gas and coal gasification","volume":"45","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227350","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2019.227350","article-title":"A critical review on the definitions used to calculate the energy efficiency coefficients of water electrolysis cells working under near ambient temperature conditions","volume":"447","author":"Lamy","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102676","DOI":"10.1016\/j.est.2021.102676","article-title":"A study on hydrogen, the clean energy of the future: Hydrogen storage methods","volume":"40","author":"Tarhan","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Energy Storage"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1433","DOI":"10.1080\/01430750.2018.1484803","article-title":"A study of hydrogen as an alternative fuel","volume":"41","author":"Paturu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Ambient Energy"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1080\/15435075.2019.1685999","article-title":"An overview of development and challenges in hydrogen powered vehicles","volume":"17","author":"Hosseini","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Green Energy"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14843","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2017.04.107","article-title":"Innovation in hydrogen production","volume":"42","author":"Dincer","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"850","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2015.12.112","article-title":"Hydrogen production from renewable and sustainable energy resources: Promising green energy carrier for clean development","volume":"57","author":"Hosseini","year":"2016","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18059","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2018.08.024","article-title":"Sustainability analysis of different hydrogen production options using hesitant fuzzy AHP","volume":"43","author":"Acar","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2015.05.011","article-title":"Hydrogen storage: Materials, methods and perspectives","volume":"50","author":"Niaz","year":"2015","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14535","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2016.05.293","article-title":"The survey of key technologies in hydrogen energy storage","volume":"41","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2016.11.195","article-title":"Current research trends and perspectives on materials-based hydrogen storage solutions: A critical review","volume":"42","author":"Ren","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12168","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2018.04.103","article-title":"An evolving energy solution: Intermediate hydrogen storage","volume":"43","author":"Nagpal","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"835","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2019.02.046","article-title":"Review and evaluation of hydrogen production options for better environment","volume":"218","author":"Acar","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2018.08.034","article-title":"A study on a numerical simulation of the leakage and diffusion of hydrogen in a fuel cell ship","volume":"97","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shen, Y., Zheng, T., Lv, H., Zhou, W., and Zhang, C. (2021). Numerical Simulation of Hydrogen Leakage from Fuel Cell Vehicle in an Outdoor Parking Garage. World Electr. Veh. J., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/wevj12030118"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1288","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2018.11.035","article-title":"Quantitative risk assessment of an urban hydrogen refueling station","volume":"44","author":"Gye","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105413","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engfailanal.2021.105413","article-title":"Failure analysis on abnormal leakage of TP321 stainless steel pipe of medium temperature shifting gas in hydrogen production system","volume":"125","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eng. Fail. Anal."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12254","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2019.03.041","article-title":"Hydrogen storage and delivery: Review of the state of the art technologies and risk and reliability analysis","volume":"44","author":"Moradi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111749","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fusengdes.2020.111749","article-title":"Numerical simulations on the leakage and diffusion of tritium","volume":"159","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Fusion Eng. Des."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5186","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2015.02.100","article-title":"NOx reduction strategies for high speed hydrogen fuelled vehicles","volume":"40","author":"Ingenito","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1039\/D1EA00037C","article-title":"Optimising air quality co-benefits in a hydrogen economy: A case for hydrogen-specific standards for NOx emissions","volume":"1","author":"Lewis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2667","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2020.10.045","article-title":"Numerical study of the premixed ammonia-hydrogen combustion under engine-relevant conditions","volume":"46","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1016\/j.buildenv.2018.06.014","article-title":"Field study of NOx degradation by a mineral-based air purifying paint","volume":"142","author":"Yu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Build. Environ."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Ni, J., Johnson, N., Ogden, J.M., Yang, C., and Johnson, J. (April, January 29). Estimating hydrogen demand distribution using geographic information systems (GIS). Proceedings of the National Hydrogen Association (NHA) Annual Hydrogen Conference, Entitled \u201cPartnering for the Global Hydrogen Future\u201d, Washington, DC, USA."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Melendez, M., and Milbrandt, A. (2008). Regional Consumer Hydrogen Demand and Optimal Hydrogen Refueling Station Siting.","DOI":"10.2172\/928253"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2015.11.156","article-title":"GIS-based method for future prospect of hydrogen demand in the Algerian road transport sector","volume":"41","author":"Rahmouni","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10195","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2014.04.145","article-title":"Hydrogen storage and demand to increase wind power onto electricity distribution networks","volume":"39","author":"Carr","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4715","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2008.06.007","article-title":"Optimization of a hydrogen supply chain under demand uncertainty","volume":"33","author":"Kim","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Burdon, R., Palmer, G., and Chakraborty, S. (2019). National Hydrogen Strategysubmission, Energy Transition Hub."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Feitz, A.J., Coghlan, R., and Tenthorey, E. (2019). Prospective Hydrogen Production Regions of Australia, Geoscience.","DOI":"10.11636\/Record.2019.015"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"468","DOI":"10.1071\/AJ19168","article-title":"Is hydrogen Asia\u2019s new energy commodity? Opportunities and challenges for Australia","volume":"60","author":"Low","year":"2020","journal-title":"APPEA J."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Laimon, M., Mai, T., Goh, S., and Yusaf, T. (2020). Energy Sector Development: System Dynamics Analysis. Appl. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/app10010134"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpvp.2018.08.002","article-title":"Analysis of compression and transport of the methane\/hydrogen mixture in existing natural gas pipelines","volume":"166","author":"Witkowski","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Press. Vessel. Pip."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1803","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2018.11.164","article-title":"Hydrogen integration in power-to-gas networks","volume":"44","author":"Gondal","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"795","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2019.01.030","article-title":"Hydrogen from renewables: Supply from North Africa to Central Europe as blend in existing pipelines\u2013Potentials and costs","volume":"237","author":"Timmerberg","year":"2019","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120971","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2021.120971","article-title":"Performance and exhaust emissions rate of small-scale turbojet engine running on dual biodiesel blends using Gasturb","volume":"232","author":"Altarazi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shadidi, B., Najafi, G., and Yusaf, T. (2021). A Review of Hydrogen as a Fuel in Internal Combustion Engines. Energies, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/en14196209"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3847","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2019.12.059","article-title":"Hydrogen production for energy: An overview","volume":"45","author":"Dawood","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Mulder, M., Perey, P., and Moraga, J.L. (2019). Outlook for a Dutch hydrogen market. Univerity Gron., 16, Available online: https:\/\/www.rug.nl\/ceer\/blog\/ceer_policypaper_5_web.pdf."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"569","DOI":"10.1016\/j.renene.2019.04.126","article-title":"Combustion, performances and emissions characteristics of black soldier fly larvae oil and diesel blends in compression ignition engine","volume":"142","author":"Kamarulzaman","year":"2019","journal-title":"Renew. Energy"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dicks, A.L., and Rand, D.A. (2018). Fuel Cell Systems Explained, John Wiley & Sons.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118706992"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3290","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2018.07.159","article-title":"The key factors affecting the strategy planning of Taiwan\u2019s hydrogen economy","volume":"44","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proeng.2017.08.192","article-title":"The Relationship between Structural Intensity and Sound Field Characteristics of Cylindrical Shells","volume":"214","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Procedia Eng."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2017.08.103","article-title":"Electrochemical hydrogen storage: Opportunities for fuel storage, batteries, fuel cells, and supercapacitors","volume":"42","author":"Eftekhari","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2017.01.107","article-title":"Dimensional effects of nanostructured Mg\/MgH2 for hydrogen storage applications: A review","volume":"72","author":"Sadhasivam","year":"2017","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"(2003). Hydrogen Energy and Fuel Cells: A Vision of Our Future: Final Report of the High Level Group, European Commission, Directorate-General for Research. Available online: https:\/\/www.fch.europa.eu\/sites\/default\/files\/documents\/hlg_vision_report_en.pdf."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14595","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2013.07.058","article-title":"Review of hydrogen storage techniques for on board vehicle applications","volume":"38","author":"Durbin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2018.11.010","article-title":"A review on the role, cost and value of hydrogen energy systems for deep decarbonisation","volume":"101","author":"Parra","year":"2019","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.3389\/fmech.2020.00021","article-title":"Energy and economic costs of chemical storage","volume":"6","author":"Dias","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Mech. Eng."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5661","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2019.01.077","article-title":"Review of hydrogen economy in Malaysia and its way forward","volume":"44","author":"Mah","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"615","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2018.02.038","article-title":"Integrating a hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicle with vehicle-to-grid technology, photovoltaic power and a residential building","volume":"215","author":"Robledo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ces.2018.12.014","article-title":"Investigation of a novel photoelectrochemical hydrogen production system","volume":"197","author":"Acar","year":"2019","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1966","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2017.11.162","article-title":"System-level power-to-gas energy storage for high penetrations of variable renewables","volume":"43","author":"Lyseng","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8166","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2017.01.155","article-title":"Fuel cell electric vehicle as a power plant: Fully renewable integrated transport and energy system design and analysis for smart city areas","volume":"42","author":"Oldenbroek","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"418","DOI":"10.1016\/j.egypro.2017.03.1097","article-title":"Hydrogen Production Using Solar Energy\u2014Technical Analysis","volume":"112","author":"Badea","year":"2017","journal-title":"Energy Procedia"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21635","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2017.07.121","article-title":"Sizing and operating power-to-gas systems to absorb excess renewable electricity","volume":"42","author":"Simonis","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"280","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2017.03.099","article-title":"Low-temperature electrolysis system modelling: A review","volume":"78","author":"Olivier","year":"2017","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"(2021, December 27). Australia\u2019s National Hydrogen Strategy. Available online: https:\/\/www.h2knowledgecentre.com\/content\/government622."},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"Szargut, J., Morris, D.R., and Steward, F.R. (1987). Exergy Analysis of Thermal, Chemical, and Metallurgical Processes."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2492","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2016.02.048","article-title":"Energy and exergy analyses of a hybrid hydrogen energy system: A case study for Bozcaada","volume":"42","author":"Kalinci","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_66","unstructured":"Australian Government, and Department of Industry, Science, Energy and Resources (2021, December 31). Australian Energy Statistics, Available online: https:\/\/www.energy.gov.au\/government-priorities\/energy-data\/australian-energy-statistics."},{"key":"ref_67","unstructured":"MacKay, D. (2008). Sustainable Energy\u2014Without the Hot Air, UIT Cambridge."},{"key":"ref_68","unstructured":"(2021, December 29). Silico. Available online: https:\/\/www.silicoai.com\/."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aziz, M., Wijayanta, A.T., and Nandiyanto, A.B.D. (2020). Ammonia as effective hydrogen storage: A review on production, storage and utilization. Energies, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/en13123062"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2019.02.190","article-title":"Ammonia production from algae via integrated hydrothermal gasification, chemical looping, N2 production, and NH3 synthesis","volume":"174","author":"Wijayanta","year":"2019","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guo, H., Zhou, S., Zou, J., and Shreka, M. (2020). A Numerical Investigation on De-NOx Technology and Abnormal Combustion Control for a Hydrogen Engine with EGR System. Processes, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/pr8091178"},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"Steyn, J. (2019, January 23\u201324). Hydrogen for Vehicular Transport. Proceedings of the AIIT 2nd International Congress on Transport Infrastructure and Systems in a changing world (TIS ROMA 2019), Rome, Italy."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2018.02.098","article-title":"Techno-economic analysis of a decarbonized shipping sector: Technology suggestions for a fleet in 2030 and 2040","volume":"164","author":"Horvath","year":"2018","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manag."}],"container-title":["Applied Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3417\/12\/2\/781\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]],"date-time":"2025-10-13T14:28:56Z","timestamp":1760365736000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3417\/12\/2\/781"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,13]]},"references-count":73,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1]]}},"alternative-id":["app12020781"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/app12020781","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-3417"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-3417","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,13]]}}}