{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,27]],"date-time":"2026-06-27T01:36:54Z","timestamp":1782524214348,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":149,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,15]],"date-time":"2025-03-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1741996800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Recovery and Resilience Plan for Slovakia","award":["17R05-04-V01-00005"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["17R05-04-V01-00005"]}]},{"name":"Recovery and Resilience Plan for Slovakia","award":["09I03-03-V05-00002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["09I03-03-V05-00002"]}]},{"name":"Recovery and Resilience Plan for Slovakia","award":["17R05-04-V01-00005"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["17R05-04-V01-00005"]}]},{"name":"Recovery and Resilience Plan for Slovakia","award":["09I03-03-V05-00002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["09I03-03-V05-00002"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Applied Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Natural hazards pose an increasing threat to society, necessitating the development of effective early warning systems (EWSs). This paper explores their critical role in mitigating the impacts of natural hazards. Its primary objective is to define and categorise the components of EWSs, summarise the components of existing systems, and propose a framework for a comprehensive early warning system. This paper includes a thorough review of the available scientific literature on early warning systems, natural hazards, and their underlying causes. It identifies both primary and secondary causes of selected natural hazards, along with their manifestations. Particular emphasis is placed on the significance of sensors and modern technologies for real-time data collection and processing. Based on this analysis, a framework is proposed that integrates various data sources, technologies, and components to enhance preparedness. The findings highlight the necessity of a holistic approach to early warning systems, one that accounts for different types of disasters and the specific needs of at-risk populations. The proposed framework may serve as a foundation for further development and the implementation of more effective early warning systems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/app15063218","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,17]],"date-time":"2025-03-17T07:49:57Z","timestamp":1742197797000},"page":"3218","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["A Component-Based Approach to Early Warning Systems: A Theoretical Model"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-2793-4786","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daniel","family":"Chovanec","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Crisis Management, Faculty of Security Engineering, University of \u017dilina, Univerzitn\u00e1 1, 010 26 \u017dilina, Slovakia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-8588-5398","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Boris","family":"Koll\u00e1r","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Crisis Management, Faculty of Security Engineering, University of \u017dilina, Univerzitn\u00e1 1, 010 26 \u017dilina, Slovakia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5510-8866","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bronislava","family":"Hal\u00faskov\u00e1","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Crisis Management, Faculty of Security Engineering, University of \u017dilina, Univerzitn\u00e1 1, 010 26 \u017dilina, Slovakia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0512-6505","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jozef","family":"Kub\u00e1s","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Crisis Management, Faculty of Security Engineering, University of \u017dilina, Univerzitn\u00e1 1, 010 26 \u017dilina, Slovakia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marcin","family":"Paw\u0119ska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International University of Logistics and Transport in Wroclaw, So\u0142tysowicka 19B, 51-168 Wroc\u0142aw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2290-1470","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jozef","family":"Ristvej","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Crisis Management, Faculty of Security Engineering, University of \u017dilina, Univerzitn\u00e1 1, 010 26 \u017dilina, Slovakia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"60","article-title":"Convective Environment and Development of a Tornadic Supercell in the Czech Republic on 24 June 2021","volume":"10","author":"Sulik","year":"2022","journal-title":"Meteorol. Hydrol. Water Manage."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"(2025, January 17). 2023 Turkey-Syria Earthquake. Available online: https:\/\/disasterphilanthropy.org\/disasters\/2023-turkey-syria-earthquake\/."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Titko, M., Ristvej, J., and Zamiar, Z. (2021). Population Preparedness for Disasters and Extreme Weather Events as a Predictor of Building a Resilient Society: The Slovak Republic. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18052311"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3885","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-23-3885-2023","article-title":"Brief Communication: A First Hydrological Investigation of Extreme August 2023 Floods in Slovenia, Europe","volume":"23","author":"Bezak","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"(2025, January 17). Germany Floods|JBA Risk Management Event Response. Available online: https:\/\/www.jbarisk.com\/knowledge-hub\/event-response\/germany-floods-may-june-2024\/."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"(2025, January 17). Czech Republic: Floods\u2014DREF Operation MDRCZ003\u2014Czechia|ReliefWeb. Available online: https:\/\/reliefweb.int\/report\/czechia\/czech-republic-floods-dref-operation-mdrcz003."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"(2025, January 17). The Copernicus Emergency Management Service Monitors the Floods in Valencia, Spain|Copernicus. Available online: https:\/\/www.copernicus.eu\/en\/media\/image-day-gallery\/copernicus-emergency-management-service-monitors-floods-valencia-spain."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1648","DOI":"10.1111\/gcb.16547","article-title":"Increasing Aridity Causes Larger and More Severe Forest Fires across Europe","volume":"29","author":"Seidl","year":"2023","journal-title":"Glob. Change Biol."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"World Meteorological Organization (WMO), and UN Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR) (2025, January 07). Global Status of Multi-Hazard Early Warning Systems 2024. Available online: https:\/\/library.wmo.int\/records\/item\/69085-global-status-of-multi-hazard-early-warning-systems-2024."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"(2025, January 21). Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015\u20132030. Available online: https:\/\/sdgs.un.org\/sites\/default\/files\/publications\/2157sendaiframeworkfordrren.pdf."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"(2025, January 20). The Report of the Midterm Review of the Implementation of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015\u20132030|UNDRR. Available online: https:\/\/www.undrr.org\/publication\/report-midterm-review-implementation-sendai-framework-disaster-risk-reduction-2015-2030."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"(2025, January 20). Words into Action Guidelines: Multi-Hazard Early Warning Systems|UNDRR. Available online: https:\/\/www.undrr.org\/words-into-action\/guide-multi-hazard-early-warning."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luino, F., Barriendos, M., Gizzi, F.T., Glaser, R., Gruetzner, C., Palmieri, W., Porfido, S., Sangster, H., and Turconi, L. (2023). Historical Data for Natural Hazard Risk Mitigation and Land Use Planning. Land, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/land12091777"},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"(2025, January 20). Early Warnings for All Dashboard. Available online: https:\/\/earlywarningsforall.org\/site\/early-warnings-all\/early-warnings-all-dashboard."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"(2025, January 29). Definition: Early Warning System|UNDRR. Available online: https:\/\/www.undrr.org\/terminology\/early-warning-system."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mohanty, A., Dubey, A., and Singh, R.B. (2022). The Application of Early Warning System in India. Cyclonic Disasters and Resilience: An Empirical Study on South Asian Coastal Regions, Springer Nature.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-19-1215-3"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Goyal, M.K., Gupta, A.K., and Gupta, A. (2022). Disaster Early Warning Communication Systems. Hydro-Meteorological Extremes and Disasters, Springer Nature.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-19-0725-8"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1396","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(22)02027-X","article-title":"Early Warning Systems for Disasters Key for Health","volume":"400","author":"Zarocostas","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meninno, S., Giambelli, M., Deda, M., Masi, R., Gioia, A., Ponte, E., Massab\u00f2, M., Morando, M., Vio, R., and Paniccia, C. (2024, January 14\u201319). Establishing Effective Links between Early Warnings and Early Action: General Criteria for Floods. Proceedings of the European Geosciences Union General Assembly 2024 (EGU24), Vienna, Austria. Copernicus Meetings.","DOI":"10.5194\/egusphere-egu24-15644"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1016\/S2212-5671(14)00923-X","article-title":"Effectiveness of Dissemination and Communication Element of Tsunami Early Warning System in Aceh","volume":"18","author":"Oktari","year":"2014","journal-title":"Procedia Econ. Financ."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1125","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-022-05468-8","article-title":"Exploring the Integration of Local and Scientific Knowledge in Early Warning Systems for Disaster Risk Reduction: A Review","volume":"114","author":"Hermans","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shi, Y., Fu, H., Tian, Y., Krzhizhanovskaya, V.V., Lees, M.H., Dongarra, J., and Sloot, P.M.A. (2018, January 11\u201313). Dynamic Real-Time Infrastructure Planning and Deployment for Disaster Early Warning Systems. Proceedings of the Computational Science\u2014ICCS 2018, Wuxi, China.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-93713-7"},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"You, I., Chora\u015b, M., Shin, S., Kim, H., and Astillo, P.V. (2023, January 19\u201321). Early Weather Warning System with Real-Time Monitoring by IoT Sensors Considering Scalability and Reliability. Proceedings of the Mobile Internet Security, Okinawa, Japan."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hammood, W.A., Abdullah Arshah, R., Mohamad Asmara, S., Al Halbusi, H., Hammood, O.A., and Al Abri, S. (2021). A Systematic Review on Flood Early Warning and Response System (FEWRS): A Deep Review and Analysis. Sustainability, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/su13010440"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Henao Salgado, M.J., and Zambrano N\u00e1jera, J. (2022). Assessing Flood Early Warning Systems for Flash Floods. Front. Clim., 4.","DOI":"10.3389\/fclim.2022.787042"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103042","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijdrr.2022.103042","article-title":"Study on Urban Flood Early Warning System Considering Flood Loss","volume":"77","author":"Zang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Disaster Risk Reduct."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shang, D., Zhang, F., Yuan, D., Hong, L., Zheng, H., and Yang, F. (2024). Deep Learning-Based Forest Fire Risk Research on Monitoring and Early Warning Algorithms. Fire, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/fire7040151"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kotroni, V., Cartalis, C., Michaelides, S., Stoyanova, J., Tymvios, F., Bezes, A., Christoudias, T., Dafis, S., Giannakopoulos, C., and Giannaros, T.M. (2020). DISARM Early Warning System for Wildfires in the Eastern Mediterranean. Sustainability, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/su12166670"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1143","DOI":"10.1007\/s10712-022-09710-7","article-title":"Earthquake Genesis and Earthquake Early Warning Systems: Challenges and a Way Forward","volume":"43","author":"Kumar","year":"2022","journal-title":"Surv. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-015-0563-8","article-title":"An Integrated Methodology for Landslides\u2019 Early Warning Systems","volume":"13","author":"Barla","year":"2016","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102973","DOI":"10.1016\/j.earscirev.2019.102973","article-title":"Geographical Landslide Early Warning Systems","volume":"200","author":"Guzzetti","year":"2020","journal-title":"Earth-Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kollar, B., Haluskova, B., Novakova, K., and Ristvej, J. (2023, January 3\u20139). Modern Technologies in the Field of Hydrology to Prevent Crisis Phenomena and Extraordinary Events. Proceedings of the International Multidisciplinary Scientific GeoConference: SGEM 23, Albena, Bulgaria.","DOI":"10.5593\/sgem2023V\/3.2\/s12.22"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bindz\u00e1rov\u00e1 Gerge\u013eov\u00e1, M., Kuzevi\u010dov\u00e1, \u017d., Labant, S., Ga\u0161inec, J., Kuzevi\u010d, \u0160., Unucka, J., and Liptai, P. (2020). Evaluation of Selected Sub-Elements of Spatial Data Quality on 3D Flood Event Modeling: Case Study of Pre\u0161ov City, Slovakia. Appl. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/app10030820"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nabinejad, S., and Sch\u00fcttrumpf, H. (2023). Flood Risk Management in Arid and Semi-Arid Areas: A Comprehensive Review of Challenges, Needs, and Opportunities. Water, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/w15173113"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101170","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejrh.2022.101170","article-title":"Riverine Flood Potential Assessment at Municipal Level in Slovakia","volume":"42","author":"Vojtek","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1007\/s11442-018-1471-3","article-title":"Spatial Pattern and Influencing Factors of Landslide Casualty Events","volume":"28","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Geogr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"413","article-title":"Multi-Factor Coupled Forest Fire Model Based on Cellular Automata","volume":"5","author":"Fangrong","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Saf. Sci. Resil."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.3103\/S1068373914060028","article-title":"Storm Cyclones in the North Atlantic","volume":"39","author":"Vyazilova","year":"2014","journal-title":"Russ. Meteorol. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Feser, F. (2018). Constructing Records of Storminess. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Climate Science, Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/acrefore\/9780190228620.013.5"},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Below, R., Wirtz, A., and Guha-Sapir, D. (2009). Disaster Category Classification and Peril Terminology for Operational Purposes, Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED), University of Louvain (UCLouvain)."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1177\/0309133307083296","article-title":"Assessment and Prediction of Natural Hazards from Satellite Imagery","volume":"31","author":"Gillespie","year":"2007","journal-title":"Prog. Phys. Geogr. Earth Environ."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gertz, M., Renz, M., Zhou, X., Hoel, E., Ku, W.-S., Voisard, A., Zhang, C., Chen, H., Tang, L., and Huang, Y. (2017, January 21\u201323). Detection and Prediction of Natural Hazards Using Large-Scale Environmental Data. Proceedings of the Advances in Spatial and Temporal Databases: 15th International Symposium, SSTD 2017, Arlington, VA, USA.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-64367-0"},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"(2025, January 29). V\u00fdznam Posudzovania Riz\u00edk v R\u00e1mci Cyklu Kr\u00edzov\u00e9ho Riadenia\u2014ProQuest. Available online: https:\/\/www.proquest.com\/docview\/3115153973\/fulltextPDF\/98A1F9C955EC47FCPQ\/1?accountid=49401&sourcetype=Scholarly%20Journals."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ristvej, J., Sokolov\u00e1, L., Starackova, J., Ondrejka, R., and Lacinak, M. (2017, January 23\u201326). Experiences with Implementation of Information Systems within Preparation to Deal with Crisis Situations in Terms of Crisis Management and Building Resilience in the Slovak Republic. Proceedings of the 2017 International Carnahan Conference on Security Technology (ICCST), Madrid, Spain.","DOI":"10.1109\/CCST.2017.8167821"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"709","DOI":"10.1017\/dmp.2018.171","article-title":"Disaster Early Warning Systems: The Potential Role and Limitations of Emerging Text and Data Messaging Mitigation Capabilities","volume":"13","author":"Goniewicz","year":"2019","journal-title":"Disaster Med. Public Health Prep."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"(2018). Directive (EU) 2018\/1972 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 December 2018 Establishing the European Electronic Communications Code (Recast) (Text with EEA Relevance). Off. J. Eur. Union L, 321, 36\u2013214."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"\u0160im\u00e1k, L. (2015). Kr\u00edzov\u00fd Mana\u017ement vo Verejnej Spr\u00e1ve, \u017dilinsk\u00e1 Univerzita v \u017diline. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Chovanec, D., Koll\u00e1r, B., and Ristvej, J. (2024, January 23\u201325). Use of Information to Support Application Software and Simulations in Crisis Management. Proceedings of the 38th Annual European Simulation and Modelling Conference, ESM 2024, San Sebastian, Spain."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1186\/s40623-024-02078-5","article-title":"Development of an Offshore Ground Motion Prediction Equation for Peak Ground Acceleration Considering Path Effects Based on S-Net Data","volume":"76","author":"Nakanishi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Earth Planets Space"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S341","DOI":"10.1193\/1.4000127","article-title":"Japan\u2019s Earthquake Early Warning System on 11 March 2011: Performance, Shortcomings, and Changes","volume":"29","author":"Fujinawa","year":"2013","journal-title":"Earthq. Spectra"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13715","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-024-06791-y","article-title":"History, Causes, and Trend of Floods in the U.S.: A Review","volume":"120","author":"Abegaz","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012056","DOI":"10.1088\/1755-1315\/437\/1\/012056","article-title":"The Analysis of the Causes of Flood Disasters and Their Impacts in the Perspective of Environmental Law","volume":"437","author":"Sholihah","year":"2020","journal-title":"IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Almikaeel, W., \u0160olt\u00e9sz, A., \u010cubanov\u00e1, L., and Barokov\u00e1, D. (2024). Hydro-Informer: A Deep Learning Model for Accurate Water Level and Flood Predictions. Nat. Hazards.","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-024-06949-8"},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"UNDP (2025, January 29). Early Warning Systems for Natural Disasters. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). Available online: https:\/\/www.adaptation-undp.org\/sites\/default\/files\/resources\/undp_brochure_early_warning_systems.pdf."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2020WR028241","DOI":"10.1029\/2020WR028241","article-title":"Implications of Using Global Digital Elevation Models for Flood Risk Assessment: A Case Study in the United States","volume":"56","author":"Sampson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"United Nations (2015). Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, United Nations General Assembly. Available online: https:\/\/docs.un.org\/en\/A\/RES\/70\/1."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Horng, G.-J., and Chang, T.-Y. (2014, January 23\u201325). The Adaptive Node-Selection Mechanism Scheme in Solar-Powered Wireless Sensor Networks. Proceedings of the 2014 International Conference on Intelligent Green Building and Smart Grid (IGBSG), Taipei, Taiwan.","DOI":"10.1109\/IGBSG.2014.6835268"},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Tomar, A., Malik, H., Kumar, P., and Iqbal, A. (2021, January 10\u201311). Sharmila Forest Fire Detection and Prevention System Using IoT. Proceedings of the Proceedings of 3rd International Conference on Machine Learning, Advances in Computing, Renewable Energy and Communication, Ghaziabad, India."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"(2003). Kvantita povrchov\u00fdch a podzemn\u00fdch v\u00f4d (Standard No. OTN \u017dP 3112-1:03)."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1080\/02508060108686908","article-title":"Causes for Record High Flood Losses in the Central United States","volume":"26","author":"Changnon","year":"2001","journal-title":"Water Int."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1549","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-8198.2008.00136.x","article-title":"Climate Change, Land-Use Change, and Floods: Toward an Integrated Assessment","volume":"2","author":"Chang","year":"2008","journal-title":"Geogr. Compass"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1007\/s11442-017-1378-4","article-title":"Drought Characteristics of Henan Province in 1961-2013 Based on Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index","volume":"27","author":"Shi","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Geogr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1007\/s11769-016-0804-3","article-title":"Effects of Drought on Net Primary Productivity: Roles of Temperature, Drought Intensity, and Duration","volume":"26","author":"Sun","year":"2016","journal-title":"Chin. Geogr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1016\/j.earscirev.2019.04.015","article-title":"Droughts in East Africa: Causes, Impacts and Resilience","volume":"193","author":"Tang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Earth-Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3385","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-13-3385-2013","article-title":"The Spatial Domain of Wildfire Risk and Response in the Wildland Urban Interface in Sydney, Australia","volume":"13","author":"Price","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Collins, K.M., Penman, T.D., and Price, O.F. (2016). Some Wildfire Ignition Causes Pose More Risk of Destroying Houses than Others. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0162083"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155155","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.155155","article-title":"High-Resolution Mapping of Wildfire Drivers in California Based on Machine Learning","volume":"833","author":"Qiu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.18517\/ijaseit.13.1.16259","article-title":"Causes of Landslides in Road Embankment with Retaining Wall and Pile Foundation: A Case Study of National Road Project in Porong-Sidoarjo, Indonesia","volume":"13","author":"Sari","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Sci. Eng. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, S., Zeng, R., Zhang, Z., Meng, X., Qi, T., Long, Z., Guo, W., and Si, G. (2024). Landslide Mapping and Causes of Landslides in the China\u2013Nepal Transportation Corridor Based on Remote Sensing Technology. Remote Sens., 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16020356"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1007\/s00254-008-1439-1","article-title":"Earthquake Disaster Risk Assessment and Evaluation for Turkey","volume":"57","author":"Korkmaz","year":"2009","journal-title":"Env. Geol"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2231","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-020-01453-z","article-title":"Enhancing the Reliability of Landslide Early Warning Systems by Machine Learning","volume":"17","author":"Thirugnanam","year":"2020","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7973","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.2024.3399689","article-title":"Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning Tools for Improving Early Warning Systems of Volcanic Eruptions: The Case of Stromboli","volume":"46","author":"Longo","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al-Rawas, G., Nikoo, M.R., Al-Wardy, M., and Etri, T. (2024). A Critical Review of Emerging Technologies for Flash Flood Prediction: Examining Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning, Internet of Things, Cloud Computing, and Robotics Techniques. Water, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/w16142069"},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"Pasila, F., Tanoto, Y., Lim, R., Santoso, M., and Pah, N.D. (2015, January 9\u201312). A River Water Level Monitoring System Using Android-Based Wireless Sensor Networks for a Flood Early Warning System. Proceedings of the Proceedings of Second International Conference on Electrical Systems, Technology and Information 2015 (ICESTI 2015), Bali, Indonesia."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Poovizhi, S., Premalatha, M., and Nivetha, C. (2017, January 22\u201323). Automatic Water Level Monitoring and Seat Availability Details in Train Using Wireless Sensor Network. Proceedings of the 2017 International Conference on Computation of Power, Energy Information and Commuincation (ICCPEIC), Melmaruvathur, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCPEIC.2017.8290385"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104398","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coastaleng.2023.104398","article-title":"Data Assimilation of Hyper-Local Water Level Sensors for Real-Time Monitoring of Coastal Inundation","volume":"186","author":"Son","year":"2023","journal-title":"Coast. Eng."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1450032","DOI":"10.1142\/S0218127414500321","article-title":"Microwave-Photonic Sensor for Remote Water-Level Monitoring Based on Chaotic Laser","volume":"24","author":"Ji","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Bifurc. Chaos"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dalai, C., Singh, M., Sunad Kumara, A.N., Patel, W., Patil, H., and Maranan, R. (2024, January 15\u201316). Monitoring Water Levels in Rivers with Optical Fiber Sensors. Proceedings of the 2024 5th International Conference on Innovative Trends in Information Technology (ICITIIT), Kottayam, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICITIIT61487.2024.10580561"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15459","DOI":"10.1021\/acsomega.2c00017","article-title":"Resistive Water Level Sensors Based on AgNWs\/PEDOT:PSS-g-PEGME Hybrid Film for Agricultural Monitoring Systems","volume":"7","author":"Baek","year":"2022","journal-title":"ACS Omega"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Leon, A.F., and Cruz, F.R.G. (2021, January 28\u201330). Water Level Monitoring and Flood Warning System Using Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) Sensor with Hybrid Renewable Solar-Wind Power. Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE 13th International Conference on Humanoid, Nanotechnology, Information Technology, Communication and Control, Environment, and Management (HNICEM), Manila, Philippines.","DOI":"10.1109\/HNICEM54116.2021.9731998"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jeon, H.-Y. (2023). Water Level Monitoring Sensor Based on Iontronic Piezo-Capacitance Effect. Sustainable Development of Water and Environment, Springer Nature. Environmental Science and Engineering.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-42588-2"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17841","DOI":"10.1039\/C7TA05094A","article-title":"An Inkjet-Printed Capacitive Sensor for Water Level or Quality Monitoring: Investigated Theoretically and Experimentally","volume":"5","author":"Yang","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem. A"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rocher, J., Parra, L., Lloret, J., and Mengual, J. (November, January 28). An Inductive Sensor for Water Level Monitoring in Tubes for Water Grids. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE\/ACS 15th International Conference on Computer Systems and Applications (AICCSA), Aqaba, Jordan.","DOI":"10.1109\/AICCSA.2018.8612845"},{"key":"ref_84","first-page":"288","article-title":"A Fiber-Optic Water Flow Sensor Based on Laser-Heated Silicon Fabry-P\u00e9rot Cavity","volume":"Volume 9852","author":"Liu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proceedings of the Fiber Optic Sensors and Applications XIII"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pillai, A.N., Abhiram, B., Arun, R., Harin, B., Nisha, K.L., Sathayadevan, S., and Vyshak, K. (2024, January 2\u20134). Cost-Effective Solutions for Underwater Ultrasonic Flow Rate Sensors in Renewable Energy Applications\u2014An Appraisal. Proceedings of the 2024 Second International Conference on Smart Technologies for Power and Renewable Energy (SPECon), Ernakulam, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/SPECon61254.2024.10537410"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wan, Y. (2023, January 15\u201317). Design and Application of a New Low and Lower Limit Differential Pressure Flow Rate Sensor. Proceedings of the 2023 3rd International Conference on Energy, Power and Electrical Engineering (EPEE), Wuhan, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/EPEE59859.2023.10351941"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bansode, P.M., and Kulkarni, V.B. (2015, January 28\u201330). IR and LASER Sensors for Newtonian Fluids for Flow-Rate Measurement Using FPGA. Proceedings of the 2015 International Conference on Industrial Instrumentation and Control (ICIC), Pune, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/IIC.2015.7150855"},{"key":"ref_88","unstructured":"van Maanen, H.R.E. (2008, January 21\u201324). Measurement of the Liquid Water Flow Rate Using Microwave Sensors in Wet-Gas Meters: Not as Simple as You Might Think. Proceedings of the 26th International North Sea Flow Measurement Workshop, Scotland, UK."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3125","DOI":"10.1007\/s10694-020-01054-1","article-title":"Measuring Water Flow Rate for a Fire Hose Using a Wireless Sensor Network for Smart Fire Fighting","volume":"57","author":"Brown","year":"2021","journal-title":"Fire Technol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shaun, F., Nefzaoui, E., Regina, H., Cesar, W., Marty, F., Capochichi-Gnambodoe, M., Poulichet, P., Basset, P., Peressuti, F., and Sarkar, S. (2017, January 18\u201322). On the Co-Integration of a Thermo-Resistive Flow-Rate Sensor in a Multi-Parameter Sensing Chip for Water Network Monitoring. Proceedings of the 2017 19th International Conference on Solid-State Sensors, Actuators and Microsystems (TRANSDUCERS), Kaohsiung, Taiwan.","DOI":"10.1109\/TRANSDUCERS.2017.7994237"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1497","DOI":"10.1007\/s10404-015-1663-4","article-title":"Sensitive Optofluidic Flow Rate Sensor Based on Laser Heating and Microring Resonator","volume":"19","author":"Gong","year":"2015","journal-title":"Microfluid Nanofluid"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wrasse, A.d.N., Bertoldi, D., Morales, R.E.M., and Jose da Silva, M. (November, January 29). Two-Phase Flow Rate Measurement Using a Capacitive Sensor and a Venturi Meter. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE SENSORS, Glasgow, UK.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSENS.2017.8234150"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108686","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compag.2024.108686","article-title":"Advancements in Dielectric Soil Moisture Sensor Calibration: A Comprehensive Review of Methods and Techniques","volume":"218","author":"Mane","year":"2024","journal-title":"Comput. Electron. Agric."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, L., Zhangzhong, L., Zheng, W., Yu, J., Wang, Z., Wang, L., and Huang, C. (2019). Data-Driven Calibration of Soil Moisture Sensor Considering Impacts of Temperature: A Case Study on FDR Sensors. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19204381"},{"key":"ref_95","first-page":"158","article-title":"Performance of Three Types of Soil Moisture Sensors: SWR, TDR and FD","volume":"28","author":"Zhao","year":"2006","journal-title":"Beijing Linye Daxue Xuebao\/J. Beijing For. Univ."},{"key":"ref_96","first-page":"32","article-title":"Review of Research Progress on Soil Moisture Sensor Technology","volume":"14","author":"Yu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Agric. Biol. Eng."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lim, G.R., Herrera, S.X.O., and Cruz, F.R.G. (2024, January 29). Selection of Suitable Soil Moisture Sensor for Clay Soil. Proceedings of the 2024 IEEE International Conference on Automatic Control and Intelligent Systems (I2CACIS), Shah Alam, Malaysia.","DOI":"10.1109\/I2CACIS61270.2024.10649855"},{"key":"ref_98","first-page":"562","article-title":"Soil Moisture Sensor Design Based on Fiber Bragg Grating","volume":"Volume 11053","author":"Yan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Proceedings of the Tenth International Symposium on Precision Engineering Measurements and Instrumentation"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1049\/icp.2024.4612","article-title":"A Comparative Analysis of Common Types of Temperature Sensors: Seeking Optimal Solutions for Diverse Industrial Environments","volume":"2024","author":"Meng","year":"2025","journal-title":"IET Conf. Proc."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mulayim, S., Ozkan, E., and Erkorkmaz, T. (December, January 30). A New Single Ended Calibration Approach of Fiber Optic Based Linear Type Temperature Sensor for Tunnels. Proceedings of the 2023 14th International Conference on Electrical and Electronics Engineering (ELECO), Bursa, Turkey.","DOI":"10.1109\/ELECO60389.2023.10416072"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hamdan, A. (2024). An IoT-Based Indoor Fire Early Warning System Using Far Infrared Thermal Sensors. Achieving Sustainable Business Through AI, Technology Education and Computer Science: Volume 2: Teaching Technology and Business Sustainability, Springer Nature.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-71213-5_27"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178334","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jallcom.2024.178334","article-title":"Capacitive-Type Wearable Temperature Sensors Based on Yttria-Stabilized Zirconia Films Fabricated via Microwave-Assisted All-Solution-Process and Their Application for Detection of Touch Stimuli","volume":"1011","author":"Kim","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Alloys Compd."},{"key":"ref_103","unstructured":"Zhousheng, Z., Guoxing, R., Aiqing, M., Lu, Z., and Feng, L. (2014, January 20\u201322). Design of Passive Wireless Resonance Type SAW Temperature Sensor. Proceedings of the 2014 International Conference on Power System Technology, Chengdu, China."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112282","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2020.112282","article-title":"Flexible Temperature Sensors: A Review","volume":"315","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maskay, A., and Pereira Da Cunha, M. (2018, January 22\u201325). High-Temperature Microwave Acoustic Vibration Sensor. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE International Ultrasonics Symposium (IUS), Kobe, Japan.","DOI":"10.1109\/ULTSYM.2018.8580106"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1166","DOI":"10.1007\/s10765-008-0375-3","article-title":"Rapid-Response Hybrid-Type Surface-Temperature Sensor","volume":"29","author":"Hiraka","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Thermophys."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1299","DOI":"10.1109\/LED.2015.2494363","article-title":"Sezawa Propagation Mode in GaN on Si Surface Acoustic Wave Type Temperature Sensor Structures Operating at GHz Frequencies","volume":"36","author":"Giangu","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Electron Device Lett."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3310","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2009.04.010","article-title":"Analysis of the Impact of the Forest Fires in August 2007 on Air Quality of Athens Using Multi-Sensor Aerosol Remote Sensing Data, Meteorology and Surface Observations","volume":"43","author":"Liu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_109","first-page":"155","article-title":"Design of IoT Based Fire-Watching and Atmospheric Environment Monitoring Systems Applied with Compound Sensors and Image Processing","volume":"10","author":"Lee","year":"2016","journal-title":"IJSH"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122701","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2023.122701","article-title":"Detection of Forest Fires and Pollutant Plume Dispersion Using IoT Air Quality Sensors","volume":"338","author":"Lertsinsrubtavee","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_111","first-page":"9502209","article-title":"Linearity and Sensitivity Analysis of MEMS Thermal Wind Sensor via Analytical Model","volume":"72","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tariq, H., Touati, F., Crescini, D., and Ben Mnaouer, A. (2024). State-of-the-Art Low-Cost Air Quality Sensors, Assemblies, Calibration and Evaluation for Respiration-Associated Diseases: A Systematic Review. Atmosphere, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos15040471"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"436","DOI":"10.4028\/www.scientific.net\/KEM.562-565.436","article-title":"Design of a MEMS Resonant Wind Sensor on Airplane Wing","volume":"562\u2013565","author":"Si","year":"2013","journal-title":"Key Eng. Mater."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shang, Z., Qi, S., Ma, R., and Li, Y. (2022, January 21\u201323). Design of Wind Sensor Measurement and Control System for Extreme Cold Environment. Proceedings of the Proceedings of the 2022 6th International Conference on Electronic Information Technology and Computer Engineering, Xiamen, China.","DOI":"10.1145\/3573428.3573498"},{"key":"ref_115","first-page":"4","article-title":"Development of a Sensor Suite for Atmospheric Boundary Layer Measurement with a Small Multirotor Unmanned Aerial System","volume":"7","author":"Adkins","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Aviat. Aeronaut. Aerosp."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2009.02.003","article-title":"Drag Force Micro Solid State Silicon Plate Wind Velocity Sensor","volume":"151","author":"Du","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21569","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2022.3212206","article-title":"Full-Bridge Design for Error Reduction of 3-D Printed Mechanical Wind Sensor","volume":"22","author":"Ye","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1901980","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.201901980","article-title":"Low Detection Limit and High Sensitivity Wind Speed Sensor Based on Triboelectrification-Induced Electroluminescence","volume":"6","author":"Su","year":"2019","journal-title":"Adv. Sci."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moll, J., Salman, R., Pozdniakov, D., Nuber, A., Friedman, H., Arnold, P., M\u00e4lzer, M., and Krozer, V. (2018, January 12\u201314). Motion Sensing of a Wind Turbine Prototype Using a Bistatic FMCW Doppler Radar Sensor. Proceedings of the 2018 11th German Microwave Conference (GeMiC), Freiburg, Germany.","DOI":"10.23919\/GEMIC.2018.8335038"},{"key":"ref_120","unstructured":"Hung, J.-B., Chang, P.-C., Hsuan, C.-Y., and Lin, T.-H. (2014, January 15\u201320). Performance Comparison of the Buoy-Mounted and Land-Based Laser Wind Sensor in the Harbor. Proceedings of the 24th International Ocean and Polar Engineering Conference, Busan, Korea."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1169","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2017.2761958","article-title":"Combined Variable Reluctance-Hall Effect Displacement Sensor","volume":"67","author":"Sandra","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2014.03.014","article-title":"Comparison between Differential SAR Interferometry and Ground Measurements Data in the Displacement Monitoring of the Earth-Dam of Conza Della Campania (Italy)","volume":"148","author":"Iglesias","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111745","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2019.111745","article-title":"Design and Verification of a Wireless Sensing System for Monitoring Large-Range Ground Movement","volume":"303","author":"Yao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_124","first-page":"5","article-title":"Design of Differential Cylindrical Capacitive Displacement Sensor","volume":"13","author":"Salah","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Electr. Electron. Eng."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Djuric, S.M., Nagy, L.F., and Damnjanovic, M.S. (2010, January 6\u20138). Detection of Ground Reaction Force Using a Miniaturized Inductive Displacement Sensor. Proceedings of the 14th International Power Electronics and Motion Control Conference EPE-PEMC 2010, Ohrid, Macedonia.","DOI":"10.1109\/EPEPEMC.2010.5606521"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105813","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autcon.2024.105813","article-title":"Paving Block Displacement Detection and Measurement Using 3D Laser Sensors on Unmanned Ground Vehicles","volume":"168","author":"Shin","year":"2024","journal-title":"Autom. Constr."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2015.2485340","article-title":"Quantification of Submillimeter Displacements by Distributed Optical Fiber Sensors","volume":"65","author":"Buchoud","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"994","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2016.2638859","article-title":"Two-Dimensional Displacement Sensor Based on CPW Line Loaded by Defected Ground Structure With Two Separated Transmission Zeroes","volume":"17","author":"Rezaee","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3633","DOI":"10.1785\/0220240049","article-title":"Assessing the Expansion of Ground-Motion Sensing Capability in Smart Cities via Internet Fiber-Optic Infrastructure","volume":"95","author":"Anderson","year":"2024","journal-title":"Seismol. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"084501","DOI":"10.1063\/1.3463271","article-title":"New Portable Sensor System for Rotational Seismic Motion Measurements","volume":"81","year":"2010","journal-title":"Rev. Sci. Instrum."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chatzopoulos, G., Papadopoulos, I., Vallianatos, F., Makris, J.P., and Kouli, M. (2021). Strong Ground Motion Sensor Network for Civil Protection Rapid Decision Support Systems. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21082833"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1434","DOI":"10.1785\/0120220237","article-title":"Using Local Infrasound to Estimate Seismic Velocity and Earthquake Magnitudes","volume":"113","author":"Macpherson","year":"2023","journal-title":"Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Singh, A., and Zommers, Z. (2014). Early Warning Systems Defined. Reducing Disaster: Early Warning Systems for Climate Change, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-017-8598-3"},{"key":"ref_134","unstructured":"Mileti, D. (1999). Disasters by Design: A Reassessment of Natural Hazards in the United States, Joseph Henry Press."},{"key":"ref_135","unstructured":"(2025, January 30). JRC Science for Disaster Risk Management 2020. Available online: https:\/\/publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu\/repository\/handle\/JRC114026."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1069","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-20-1069-2020","article-title":"Review Article: Natural Hazard Risk Assessments at the Global Scale","volume":"20","author":"Ward","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Heinz-Peter, B., Marina, R., Heinz-Peter, B., and Marina, R. (2018). Natural Hazards: Systematic Assessment of Their Contribution to Risk and Their Consequences. Probabilistic Modeling in System Engineering, IntechOpen.","DOI":"10.5772\/intechopen.76503"},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"680","DOI":"10.1002\/2013RG000445","article-title":"Reviewing and Visualizing the Interactions of Natural Hazards","volume":"52","author":"Gill","year":"2014","journal-title":"Rev. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yumang, A.N., Paglinawan, C.C., Paglinawan, A.C., Avenda\u00f1o, G.O., Esteves, J.A.C., Pagaduan, J.R.P., and Selda, J.D.S. (2017, January 1\u20133). Real-Time Flood Water Level Monitoring System with SMS Notification. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE 9th International Conference on Humanoid, Nanotechnology, Information Technology, Communication and Control, Environment and Management (HNICEM), Manila, Philippines.","DOI":"10.1109\/HNICEM.2017.8269468"},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, Y.-M., and Mittal, H. (2021). A Review on the Development of Earthquake Warning System Using Low-Cost Sensors in Taiwan. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21227649"},{"key":"ref_141","first-page":"3240","article-title":"Development of Earthquake Detection and Warning System Based on MEMS Sensors","volume":"33","author":"Mittal","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sens. Mater."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Randhawa, R.H., Mahmood, R., and Ahmad, T. (2018, January 17\u201319). AquaEye: A Low Cost Flood Early Warning System for Developing Countries. Proceedings of the 2018 International Conference on Frontiers of Information Technology (FIT), Islamabad, Pakistan.","DOI":"10.1109\/FIT.2018.00067"},{"key":"ref_143","unstructured":"Masson-Delmotte, V., Zhai, P., Pirani, A., Connors, S.L., P\u00e9an, C., Berger, S., Caud, N., Chen, Y., Goldfarb, L., and Gomis, M.I. (2021). Framing, context, and methods. Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"ref_144","unstructured":"(2025, January 17). National Disaster Risk Assessment. Available online: https:\/\/www.unisdr.org\/files\/52828_nationaldisasterriskassessmentpart1.pdf."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pan, Z., Xu, Z., Chen, L., Peng, C., and Liu, E. (2024, January 29\u201331). Application of Artificial Intelligence Technology in Flood Early Warning System. Proceedings of the 2024 3rd International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Autonomous Robot Systems (AIARS), Bristol, UK.","DOI":"10.1109\/AIARS63200.2024.00087"},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Faiella, A., Menoni, S., Boni, M.P., Panoutsopoulou, M., Thoma, T., Salari, S., and Rueda, N. (2022). Enabling Knowledge through Structured Disaster Damage & Loss Data Management System. Sustainability, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/su14106187"},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chandrakumar, C., Prasanna, R., Stephens, M., and Tan, M.L. (2022). Earthquake Early Warning Systems Based on Low-Cost Ground Motion Sensors: A Systematic Literature Review. Front. Sens., 3.","DOI":"10.3389\/fsens.2022.1020202"},{"key":"ref_148","first-page":"216","article-title":"Scientific Challenges of Research on Natural Hazards and Disaster Risk","volume":"2","author":"Cui","year":"2021","journal-title":"Geogr. Sustain."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kubas, J., Polorecka, M., Holla, K., Soltes, V., Kelisek, A., Strachota, S., and Maly, S. (2022). Use of Toxic Substance Release Modelling as a Tool for Prevention Planning in Border Areas. Atmosphere, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos13050836"}],"container-title":["Applied Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3417\/15\/6\/3218\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T16:54:19Z","timestamp":1760028859000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3417\/15\/6\/3218"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,15]]},"references-count":149,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3]]}},"alternative-id":["app15063218"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/app15063218","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-3417"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-3417","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,15]]}}}