{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]],"date-time":"2026-08-28T14:52:10Z","timestamp":1787928730032,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":101,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,20]],"date-time":"2025-03-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1742428800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"The Genomic Research and Data Science Center for Computation and Cloud Computing (GRADS-4C)","award":["211512"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["211512"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Applied Microbiology"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background and Objectives: The imminent threat of antibiotic resistance has spurred studies of nonconventional antimicrobial approaches. Gallium utilization is a promising and emerging approach to treating a variety of resistant bacteria using \u201cTrojan horse\u201d strategies to disrupt iron-dependent processes and biofilms. This study utilized experimental evolution to test the evolvability of gallium resistance in Staphylococcus aureus and resistance traits potentially correlated with metals, antibiotics and polyfluorinated compounds, as well as its genomics foundations. Methods: Whole-genome sequencing was utilized to reveal functional networks of mutations associated with gallium resistance. Additionally, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) observation was utilized to visualize distinct morphological changes on the surface of gallium-resistant populations and compare with the control populations. Results: As demonstrated by these studies, S. aureus evolved resistance to gallium after 20 days of selection. Furthermore, these populations displayed resistance traits correlated with heavy metals and polyfluorinated compounds. In contrast, the gallium-resistant populations were very sensitive to antibiotics. Whole-genome analysis revealed significant polymorphisms in the gallium (III)-resistant populations for example, polymorphisms in staphyloferrinA export MFS transporter\/D ornithine citrate ligase (sfaA\/sfaD), teichoic acid D Ala esterase (fmtA), DUF3169 family protein (KQ76_RS01520) and adenine phosphoribosyltransferase (KQ76_RS08360), while polymorphisms in the ABC transporter permease subunit (pstC) and acyltransferase family protein (KQ76_RS04365) were unique to the control populations. The polymorphisms directly affected the cells\u2019 morphology. SEM images showed significant external ultrastructural changes in the gallium-selected bacterial cells compared to the control cells. Conclusions: Our study confirmed that using gallium as an antimicrobial can have significant health and environmental implications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/applmicrobiol5010032","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,20]],"date-time":"2025-03-20T07:59:54Z","timestamp":1742457594000},"page":"32","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Gallium Resistance in Staphylococcus aureus: Polymorphisms and Morphology Impacting Growth in Metals, Antibiotics and Polyfluorinated Compounds"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"5","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3441-9881","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Akamu","family":"Ewunkem","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, Winston Salem State University, Winston-Salem, NC 27110, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Felicia","family":"Simpson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mathematics, Winston Salem State University, Winston-Salem, NC 27110, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"David","family":"Holland","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mathematics, Winston Salem State University, Winston-Salem, NC 27110, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tatyana","family":"Bowers","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mathematics, Winston Salem State University, Winston-Salem, NC 27110, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ariyon","family":"Bailey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, Winston Salem State University, Winston-Salem, NC 27110, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ja\u2019nyah","family":"Gore","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, Winston Salem State University, Winston-Salem, NC 27110, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5938-0664","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Uchenna","family":"Iloghalu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, Winston Salem State University, Winston-Salem, NC 27110, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vera","family":"Williams","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"UNC Health Care Hillsborough, Hillsborough, NC 27278, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sarah","family":"Adjei-Fremah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, Winston Salem State University, Winston-Salem, NC 27110, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Larisa","family":"Kiki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Applied Sciences, North Carolina A and T State University, Greensboro, NC 27411, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Brittany","family":"Justice","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, Winston Salem State University, Winston-Salem, NC 27110, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Danis-Wlodarczyk, K.M., Wozniak, D.J., and Abedon, S.T. 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