{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]],"date-time":"2026-09-24T12:07:25Z","timestamp":1790251645350,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":197,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]],"date-time":"2026-09-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790208000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Appl. Microbiol.","Applied Microbiology"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The gut microbiome has emerged as an important determinant of the metabolism, efficacy, and safety of many therapeutic agents, expanding the traditional host-centered view of pharmacology. Direct microbial biotransformation is particularly relevant to orally administered compounds, whereas the gut microbiome can also influence systemically administered therapies indirectly through immune, inflammatory, barrier, and hepatic pathways. Beyond its established roles in nutrient metabolism, immune regulation, and maintenance of epithelial homeostasis, the microbiome functions as a metabolically active organ capable of transforming endogenous molecules, dietary compounds, xenobiotics, and therapeutic agents through an extensive repertoire of microbial enzymes and metabolites. These interactions influence virtually every stage of drug disposition by modifying pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, bioavailability, therapeutic efficacy, and toxicity. This narrative review summarizes current knowledge of the composition and functional diversity of the gut microbiome and examines the molecular mechanisms underlying host\u2013microbe\u2013drug interactions, including direct microbial biotransformation, regulation of intestinal barrier integrity, immune modulation, bile acid metabolism, and microbial control of hepatic drug-metabolizing pathways. We further discuss the impact of these mechanisms across multiple therapeutic areas, including oncology, neurological and psychiatric disorders, cardiovascular medicine, diabetes, metabolic diseases, and microbiome-dependent activation of natural products. Emphasis is placed on recent advances in cancer therapy, where the microbiome has emerged as a key determinant of responses to chemotherapy, immune checkpoint inhibitors, oncolytic viruses, and other immunotherapies. The review also highlights the bidirectional relationship between drugs and microbial communities, illustrating how pharmaceuticals reshape the microbiome while microbial ecosystems simultaneously influence therapeutic outcomes. Finally, we discuss emerging technologies, including multi-omics approaches, artificial intelligence, organ-on-chip models, and microbiome-targeted interventions, that are accelerating the integration of pharmacomicrobiomics into drug discovery and precision medicine. Collectively, current evidence supports recognizing the microbiome as an integral component of human pharmacology and a promising source of predictive biomarkers and therapeutic targets for the development of safer, more effective, and personalized treatment strategies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/applmicrobiol6100113","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]],"date-time":"2026-09-24T11:11:23Z","timestamp":1790248283000},"page":"113","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Role of the Gut Microbiome in Natural and Synthetic Drug Efficacy and Safety: A Narrative Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"6","author":[{"given":"Ricardo","family":"Villoch-Rosado","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Toxicology and Drug Design Program, Department of Science and Technology, Universidad Ana G. M\u00e9ndez (UAGM), Cupey, P.O. Box 21150, San Juan, PR 00928-1150, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dijanneliz","family":"Acosta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Toxicology and Drug Design Program, Department of Science and Technology, Universidad Ana G. M\u00e9ndez (UAGM), Cupey, P.O. Box 21150, San Juan, PR 00928-1150, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lorelein","family":"Morales-Santiago","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Toxicology and Drug Design Program, Department of Science and Technology, Universidad Ana G. M\u00e9ndez (UAGM), Cupey, P.O. Box 21150, San Juan, PR 00928-1150, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Isabel M.","family":"Gonz\u00e1lez-Tard\u00ed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Toxicology and Drug Design Program, Department of Science and Technology, Universidad Ana G. M\u00e9ndez (UAGM), Cupey, P.O. Box 21150, San Juan, PR 00928-1150, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Omaira","family":"Medina-Rodr\u00edguez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Toxicology and Drug Design Program, Department of Science and Technology, Universidad Ana G. M\u00e9ndez (UAGM), Cupey, P.O. Box 21150, San Juan, PR 00928-1150, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Karoline","family":"R\u00edos-Rodr\u00edguez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Toxicology and Drug Design Program, Department of Science and Technology, Universidad Ana G. M\u00e9ndez (UAGM), Cupey, P.O. Box 21150, San Juan, PR 00928-1150, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ivette","family":"Agront-Medina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Toxicology and Drug Design Program, Department of Science and Technology, Universidad Ana G. M\u00e9ndez (UAGM), Cupey, P.O. Box 21150, San Juan, PR 00928-1150, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alejandra E.","family":"Alvarado-Andino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Toxicology and Drug Design Program, Department of Science and Technology, Universidad Ana G. M\u00e9ndez (UAGM), Cupey, P.O. Box 21150, San Juan, PR 00928-1150, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Luis A.","family":"B\u00e1ez-Rodr\u00edguez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Toxicology and Drug Design Program, Department of Science and Technology, Universidad Ana G. M\u00e9ndez (UAGM), Cupey, P.O. Box 21150, San Juan, PR 00928-1150, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alberto","family":"Calder\u00f3n-Nu\u00f1ez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Toxicology and Drug Design Program, Department of Science and Technology, Universidad Ana G. M\u00e9ndez (UAGM), Cupey, P.O. Box 21150, San Juan, PR 00928-1150, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Adneliz G.","family":"C\u00e1tala-C\u00e1tala","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Toxicology and Drug Design Program, Department of Science and Technology, Universidad Ana G. M\u00e9ndez (UAGM), Cupey, P.O. Box 21150, San Juan, PR 00928-1150, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nomarys","family":"Delgado-Negr\u00f3n","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Toxicology and Drug Design Program, Department of Science and Technology, Universidad Ana G. M\u00e9ndez (UAGM), Cupey, P.O. Box 21150, San Juan, PR 00928-1150, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tayra L.","family":"Figueroa-Reyes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Toxicology and Drug Design Program, Department of Science and Technology, Universidad Ana G. M\u00e9ndez (UAGM), Cupey, P.O. Box 21150, San Juan, PR 00928-1150, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Luis","family":"Mojica-P\u00e9rez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Toxicology and Drug Design Program, Department of Science and Technology, Universidad Ana G. M\u00e9ndez (UAGM), Cupey, P.O. Box 21150, San Juan, PR 00928-1150, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"H\u00e9ctor","family":"Rosa-L\u00f3pez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Toxicology and Drug Design Program, Department of Science and Technology, Universidad Ana G. M\u00e9ndez (UAGM), Cupey, P.O. Box 21150, San Juan, PR 00928-1150, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andr\u00e9s","family":"Santos-Berm\u00fadez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Toxicology and Drug Design Program, Department of Science and Technology, Universidad Ana G. M\u00e9ndez (UAGM), Cupey, P.O. 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