{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T19:02:33Z","timestamp":1785438153591,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":61,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,27]],"date-time":"2026-07-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1785110400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100018537","name":"National Science and Technology Major Project","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["2024ZD0529300"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024ZD0529300"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100018537","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"Science and Technology Commission of Shanghai Municipality and Shanghai Municipal Health Commission","award":["JKKPYL-2025-B08"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JKKPYL-2025-B08"]}]},{"award":["JKKPYL-2025-B08"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JKKPYL-2025-B08"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/03kt66j61","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center","award":["RC-QH-2026-12"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RC-QH-2026-12"]}]},{"award":["RC-QH-2026-12"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RC-QH-2026-12"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01nnwyz44","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Adv. Respir. Med.","ARM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Tuberculous meningitis (TBM) is the most severe form of central nervous system tuberculosis, associated with high mortality and neurological sequelae. Microglia-driven neuroinflammation is a key contributor to TBM pathogenesis; however, its specific effects on ependymal cells\u2014critical for cerebrospinal fluid dynamics and barrier function\u2014and potential therapeutic strategies remain unclear. Methods: A murine TBM model was established by tail vein injection of BCG. Although the virulence of BCG, an attenuated strain of Mycobacterium bovis, is different from that of clinically isolated human Mycobacterium tuberculosis, its induced phenotypes such as periventricular inflammatory infiltration, microglia activation, and ependymal dysfunction highly reproduce the key histopathological features of human TBM. Primary ependymal cells were cultured and treated either directly with BCG or indirectly with conditioned medium from BCG-stimulated BV2 microglial cells (BCG+BV2-CM). Transcriptomic profiling was conducted via RNA sequencing, with validation by qPCR and Western blot. Functional outcomes, including ciliary morphology and apoptosis, were assessed using immunofluorescence and flow cytometry. The therapeutic effect of sodium butyrate (NaB) was evaluated through pretreatment experiments. Results: BCG infection induced characteristic TBM pathology, with persistent bacteria in the brain and lungs, ventricular inflammation, and pulmonary damage. Transcriptomic analysis showed that direct BCG treatment altered the expression of 1036 genes in ependymal cells, whereas BCG+BV2-CM treatment induced 3558 differentially expressed genes, highlighting microglia\u2019s role in amplifying ependymal injury. Integrated analysis identified 64 consistently dysregulated genes across in vitro and in vivo models, enriched in immune and metabolic pathways. BCG challenge significantly downregulated Hmgcs2, leading to ciliary shortening and increased apoptosis. Sodium butyrate treatment restored Hmgcs2 expression, preserved ciliary structure, and reduced apoptosis. Conclusion: Microglia profoundly exacerbate transcriptional dysregulation in ependymal cells during TBM. Sodium butyrate confers protection against BCG-induced ependymal damage by upregulating Hmgcs2, revealing a novel therapeutic target for tuberculous meningitis.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/arm94040054","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,27]],"date-time":"2026-07-27T09:47:41Z","timestamp":1785145661000},"page":"54","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Microglia-Mediated Ependymal Injury in Bacille Calmette-Gu\u00e9rin-Induced Meningitis Is Attenuated by Sodium Butyrate with Restoration of Hmgcs2 Expression"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"94","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5584-8963","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yang","family":"Ren","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center, Fudan University, Shanghai 201508, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Danni","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Pharmacy, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou 311121, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shiqi","family":"Xie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center, Fudan University, Shanghai 201508, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yawen","family":"He","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center, Fudan University, Shanghai 201508, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xuanru","family":"Zhuang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center, Fudan University, Shanghai 201508, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dan","family":"Ye","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Tuberculosis Research Center, Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center, Fudan University, Shanghai 201508, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhentao","family":"Fei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Tuberculosis Research Center, Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center, Fudan University, Shanghai 201508, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lu","family":"Xia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Tuberculosis Research Center, Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center, Fudan University, Shanghai 201508, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0306-3088","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yongjie","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Pharmacy, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou 311121, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9763-7352","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Feng","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center, Fudan University, Shanghai 201508, China"},{"name":"Tuberculosis Research Center, Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center, Fudan University, Shanghai 201508, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"450","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(21)00435-X","article-title":"Tuberculous meningitis: Progress and remaining questions","volume":"21","author":"Huynh","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1425","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMe2310262","article-title":"Tuberculous Meningitis\u2014New Approaches Needed","volume":"389","author":"Wasserman","year":"2023","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e47","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(24)00512-7","article-title":"Advancing the chemotherapy of tuberculous meningitis: A consensus view","volume":"25","author":"Wasserman","year":"2025","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1594","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciac208","article-title":"Randomized Clinical Trial of High-Dose Rifampicin with or Without Levofloxacin Versus Standard of Care for Pediatric Tuberculous Meningitis: The TBM-KIDS Trial","volume":"75","author":"Paradkar","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"CD013359","article-title":"Xpert MTB\/RIF Ultra assay for tuberculosis disease and rifampicin resistance in children","volume":"9","author":"Kay","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciab1036","article-title":"Optimizing Antimicrobial and Host-Directed Therapies to Improve Clinical Outcomes of Childhood Tuberculous Meningitis","volume":"75","author":"Gafar","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-024-03240-2","article-title":"Ependymal cells: Roles in central nervous system infections and therapeutic application","volume":"21","author":"Xie","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflammat."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1007\/s00401-024-02784-0","article-title":"Multiciliated ependymal cells: An update on biology and pathology in the adult brain","volume":"148","author":"Groh","year":"2024","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"468","article-title":"Roles of Ependymal Cells in the Physiology and Pathology of the Central Nervous System","volume":"14","author":"Deng","year":"2023","journal-title":"Aging Dis."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, L.L., and Fame, R.M. (2023). Ependymal cells SCOre sweet cerebrospinal fluid. PLoS Biol., 21.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pbio.3002323"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7308","DOI":"10.1038\/s41380-021-01202-1","article-title":"Ependymal cells-CSF flow regulates stress-induced depression","volume":"26","author":"Seo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-024-07889-w","article-title":"Endogenous opioid signalling regulates spinal ependymal cell proliferation","volume":"634","author":"Yue","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110440","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2022.110440","article-title":"Identification of a discrete subpopulation of spinal cord ependymal cells with neural stem cell properties","volume":"38","author":"Stenudd","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2300681120","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2300681120","article-title":"A role for mutations in AK9 and other genes affecting ependymal cells in idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus","volume":"120","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1186\/s12987-024-00548-2","article-title":"Impact of aquaporin-4 and CD11c + microglia in the development of ependymal cells in the aqueduct: Inferences to hydrocephalus","volume":"21","author":"Mayo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Fluids Barriers CNS"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1016\/j.devcel.2023.01.003","article-title":"An ependymal cell census identifies heterogeneous and ongoing cell maturation in the adult mouse spinal cord that changes dynamically on injury","volume":"58","author":"Albors","year":"2023","journal-title":"Dev. Cell"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2023.112177","article-title":"Single-cell analysis reveals changes in BCG vaccine-injected mice modeling tuberculous meningitis brain infection","volume":"42","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110871","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intimp.2023.110871","article-title":"Single-cell analysis of the miRNA activities in tuberculous meningitis (TBM) model mice injected with the BCG vaccine","volume":"124","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. Immunopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102574","DOI":"10.1016\/j.stemcr.2025.102574","article-title":"Ependymal and neural stem cells are close relatives","volume":"20","author":"Lokka","year":"2025","journal-title":"Stem Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101494","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molmet.2022.101494","article-title":"Hmgcs2-mediated ketogenesis modulates high-fat diet-induced hepatosteatosis","volume":"61","author":"Asif","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-220640","article-title":"HMGCS2-Induced Autophagic Degradation of Tau Involves Ketone Body and ANKRD24","volume":"91","author":"Hu","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Alzheimer\u2019s Dis."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1898","DOI":"10.1038\/s41401-024-01300-0","article-title":"Restoration of HMGCS2-mediated ketogenesis alleviates tacrolimus-induced hepatic lipid metabolism disorder","volume":"45","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Acta Pharmacol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108479","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2024.108479","article-title":"Sodium butyrate alleviates lead-induced neuroinflammation and improves cognitive and memory impairment through the ACSS2\/H3K9ac\/BDNF pathway","volume":"184","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2398891","DOI":"10.1080\/13510002.2024.2398891","article-title":"Sodium butyrate protect bone mass in lipopolysaccharide-treated rats by reducing oxidative stress and inflammatory","volume":"29","author":"Tao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Redox Rep."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114308","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2023.114308","article-title":"Butyrate ameliorates chronic alcoholic central nervous damage by suppressing microglia-mediated neuroinflammation and modulating the microbiome-gut-brain axis","volume":"160","author":"Wei","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biomed. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.mcb.2015.01.004","article-title":"Ependymal cell differentiation, from monociliated to multiciliated cells","volume":"127","author":"Delgehyr","year":"2015","journal-title":"Methods Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e59","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(24)00383-8","article-title":"Global burden of tuberculous meningitis in children aged 0\u201314 years in 2019: A mathematical modelling study","volume":"13","author":"Jenkins","year":"2025","journal-title":"Lancet Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"813","DOI":"10.1080\/14787210.2018.1540930","article-title":"Management of complex tuberculosis cases: A focus on drug-resistant tuberculous meningitis","volume":"16","author":"Garg","year":"2018","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Anti-Infect. Ther."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"771","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(19)30154-1","article-title":"The neurocritical care of tuberculous meningitis","volume":"18","author":"Donovan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"1255","article-title":"Potential of Neuroinflammation-Modulating Strategies in Tuberculous Meningitis: Targeting Microglia","volume":"15","author":"Lu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Aging Dis."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ma, Q., Chen, J., Kong, X., Zeng, Y., Chen, Z., Liu, H., Liu, L., Lu, S., and Wang, X. (2024). Interactions between CNS and immune cells in tuberculous meningitis. Front. Immunol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2024.1326859"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150169","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2026.150169","article-title":"Inflammation-induced Neuronal Damage in CNS Tuberculosis: Molecular Mechanism and Therapeutic Targets","volume":"1875","author":"Ahmad","year":"2026","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2894","DOI":"10.1093\/jimmun\/vkaf186","article-title":"Single-cell profiling of blood and cerebrospinal fluid in tuberculous meningitis","volume":"214","author":"Tram","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mo, S., Shi, C., Cai, Y., Xu, M., Xu, H., Xu, Y., Zhang, K., Zhang, Y., Liu, J., and Che, S. (2024). Single-cell transcriptome reveals highly complement activated microglia cells in association with pediatric tuberculous meningitis. Front. Immunol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2024.1387808"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1326651","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1326651","article-title":"Recent advances in understanding the human host immune response in tuberculous meningitis","volume":"14","author":"Barnacle","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1609","DOI":"10.1007\/s10753-015-0136-y","article-title":"Macrophage-Microglia Networks Drive M1 Microglia Polarization After Mycobacterium Infection","volume":"38","author":"Qin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Inflammation"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.12688\/wellcomeopenres.15535.1","article-title":"Tuberculous Meningitis International Research Consortium The current global situation for tuberculous meningitis: Epidemiology, diagnostics, treatment and outcomes","volume":"4","author":"Seddon","year":"2019","journal-title":"Wellcome Open Res."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e724","DOI":"10.1002\/cpz1.724","article-title":"Microglial Phagocytosis\/Cell Health High-Content Assay","volume":"3","author":"Mason","year":"2023","journal-title":"Curr. Protoc."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"927","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-020-0650-6","article-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s-associated PLC\u03b32 is a signaling node required for both TREM2 function and the inflammatory response in human microglia","volume":"23","author":"Andreone","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117278","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jns.2020.117278","article-title":"Central nervous system tuberculosis","volume":"421","author":"Katrak","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"492","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2017.03.069","article-title":"HMGCS2 promotes autophagic degradation of the amyloid-beta precursor protein through ketone body-mediated mechanisms","volume":"486","author":"Hu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Suresh, V.V., Sivaprakasam, S., Bhutia, Y.D., Prasad, P.D., Thangaraju, M., and Ganapathy, V. (2025). Not Just an Alternative Energy Source: Diverse Biological Functions of Ketone Bodies and Relevance of HMGCS2 to Health and Disease. Biomolecules, 15.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202502.2335.v1"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Spanos, J.P., Hsu, N.-J., and Jacobs, M. (2015). Microglia are crucial regulators of neuro-immunity during central nervous system tuberculosis. Front. Cell. Neurosci., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fncel.2015.00182"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"842","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciac831","article-title":"Cognitive Impairment in Tuberculous Meningitis","volume":"76","author":"Davis","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2101","DOI":"10.1016\/j.devcel.2024.05.009","article-title":"Inhibition of HDAC activity directly reprograms murine embryonic stem cells to trophoblast stem cells","volume":"59","author":"Huang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Dev. Cell"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moule, M.G., and Cirillo, J.D. (2020). Mycobacterium tuberculosis Dissemination Plays a Critical Role in Pathogenesis. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2020.00065"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3961","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2022.2137776","article-title":"Beneficial effects of butyrate on brain functions: A view of epigenetic","volume":"64","author":"Alpino","year":"2024","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arabhalvaei, V., Rajaei, S.N., Alinaghi, M.M., Talebi, M., Dashti, F., Abachi, S.F., Khodayar, Z., Jafroodi, A.R., Jamalaldin, M., and Mehboodi, M. (2026). Investigation of the effects of sodium butyrate on SH-SY5Y neurons treated with amyloid beta42 and lipopolysaccharide: A computational and experimental study. Sci. Rep.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-026-59446-2"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-025-05428-w","article-title":"Therapeutic Potential of Sodium Butyrate in Neurological and Psychiatric Disorders","volume":"63","author":"Rahmani","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1186\/s12964-021-00715-0","article-title":"Phosphoinositides signaling modulates microglial actin remodeling and phagocytosis in Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"19","author":"Desale","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Commun. Signal."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4707","DOI":"10.1007\/s00210-025-04740-5","article-title":"Neuroprotective mechanisms of sodium butyrate in Parkinson\u2019s disease in preclinical rodent models: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"399","author":"Hosseini","year":"2026","journal-title":"Naunyn-Schmiedeberg\u2019s Arch. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1194","DOI":"10.1002\/iid3.1194","article-title":"Sodium butyrate activates the KATP channels to regulate the mechanism of Parkinson\u2019s disease microglia model inflammation","volume":"12","author":"Xu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Immun. Inflamm. Dis."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1186\/s13041-025-01179-w","article-title":"Sodium butyrate attenuates microglia-mediated neuroinflammation by modulating the TLR4\/MyD88\/NF-\u03baB pathway and microbiome-gut-brain axis in cardiac arrest mice","volume":"18","author":"Sun","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mol. Brain"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuro.2018.05.002","article-title":"Characterization and comparative analysis of a new mouse microglial cell model for studying neuroinflammatory mechanisms during neurotoxic insults","volume":"67","author":"Sarkar","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neurotoxicology"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15621","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-99867-z","article-title":"In vitro models of microglia: A comparative study","volume":"15","author":"Woolf","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bos, M.V.D., Geevasinga, N., Higashihara, M., Menon, P., and Vucic, S. (2019). Pathophysiology and Diagnosis of ALS: Insights from Advances in Neurophysiological Techniques. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20112818"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.5694\/mja16.01063","article-title":"Motor neurone disease: Progress and challenges","volume":"206","author":"Dharmadasa","year":"2017","journal-title":"Med. J. Aust."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"358","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn3880","article-title":"Immune attack: The role of inflammation in Alzheimer disease","volume":"16","author":"Heppner","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"616","DOI":"10.1002\/jnr.490310405","article-title":"An immortalized cell line expresses properties of activated microglial cells","volume":"31","author":"Bocchini","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Res."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mazziotti, V., Carone, L.D.S., Olmeo, F., Chiodo, F., Silipo, A., Molinaro, A., and Di Lorenzo, F. (2026). Structure matters: Commensal Phocaeicola vulgatus lipopolysaccharide induces attenuated microglial activation and preserves neuronal integrity. Front. Cell. Neurosci., 20.","DOI":"10.3389\/fncel.2026.1796397"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1168","DOI":"10.1007\/s10495-023-01850-4","article-title":"Sodium butyrate induces ferroptosis in endometrial cancer cells via the RBM3\/SLC7A11 axis","volume":"28","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Apoptosis"}],"container-title":["Advances in Respiratory Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2543-6031\/94\/4\/54\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,29]],"date-time":"2026-07-29T04:28:43Z","timestamp":1785299323000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2543-6031\/94\/4\/54"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,27]]},"references-count":61,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8]]}},"alternative-id":["arm94040054"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/arm94040054","relation":{},"ISSN":["2543-6031"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2543-6031","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,27]]}}}