{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,18]],"date-time":"2026-01-18T23:20:52Z","timestamp":1768778452838,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,3]],"date-time":"2020-01-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1578009600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Atmosphere"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Air pollution epidemiological studies often use outdoor concentrations from central-site monitors as exposure surrogates, which can induce measurement error. The goal of this study was to improve exposure assessments of ambient fine particulate matter (PM2.5), elemental carbon (EC), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and carbon monoxide (CO) for a repeated measurements study with 15 individuals with coronary artery disease in central North Carolina called the Coronary Artery Disease and Environmental Exposure (CADEE) study. We developed a fine-scale exposure modeling approach to determine five tiers of individual-level exposure metrics for PM2.5, EC, NOx, and CO using outdoor concentrations, on-road vehicle emissions, weather, home building characteristics, time-locations, and time-activities. We linked an urban-scale air quality model, residential air exchange rate model, building infiltration model, global positioning system (GPS)-based microenvironment model, and accelerometer-based inhaled ventilation model to determine residential outdoor concentrations (Cout_home, Tier 1), residential indoor concentrations (Cin_home, Tier 2), personal outdoor concentrations (Cout_personal, Tier 3), exposures (E, Tier 4), and inhaled doses (D, Tier 5). We applied the fine-scale exposure model to determine daily 24 h average PM2.5, EC, NOx, and CO exposure metrics (Tiers 1\u20135) for 720 participant-days across the 25 months of the CADEE study. Daily modeled metrics showed considerable temporal and home-to-home variability of Cout_home and Cin_home (Tiers 1\u20132) and person-to-person variability of Cout_personal, E, and D (Tiers 3\u20135). Our study demonstrates the ability to apply an urban-scale air quality model with an individual-level exposure model to determine multiple tiers of exposure metrics for an epidemiological study, in support of improving health risk assessments.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos11010065","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,3]],"date-time":"2020-01-03T11:55:07Z","timestamp":1578052507000},"page":"65","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Fine-Scale Modeling of Individual Exposures to Ambient PM2.5, EC, NOx, and CO for the Coronary Artery Disease and Environmental Exposure (CADEE) Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2078-5015","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michael","family":"Breen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Public Health and Environmental Assessment, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Shih Ying","family":"Chang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for the Environment, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27517, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Miyuki","family":"Breen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education (ORISE), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Chapel Hill, NC 27514, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yadong","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Oak Ridge Associated Universities (ORAU), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7039-3925","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vlad","family":"Isakov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Measurements and Modeling, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6836-6944","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Saravanan","family":"Arunachalam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for the Environment, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27517, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Martha Sue","family":"Carraway","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Durham VA Medical Center, Durham, NC 27705 USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Robert","family":"Devlin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Public Health and Environmental Assessment, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Chapel Hill, NC 27514, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"U.S. EPA (2019, November 25). Integrated Science Assessment (ISA) for Particulate Matter, Available online: https:\/\/cfpub.epa.gov\/ncea\/risk\/recordisplay.cfm?deid=216546."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Janssen, N., and Joint, W.H. (2012). Health Effects of Black Carbon, WHO Regional Office for Europe. Available online: http:\/\/www.euro.who.int\/en\/publications\/abstracts\/health-effects-of-black-carbon-2012."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"U.S. EPA (2019, November 25). Integrated Science Assessment (ISA) for Oxides of Nitrogen\u2014Health Criteria, Available online: https:\/\/cfpub.epa.gov\/ncea\/isa\/recordisplay.cfm?deid=310879."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"U.S. EPA (2019, November 25). Integrated Science Assessment (ISA) for Carbon Monoxide, Available online: https:\/\/cfpub.epa.gov\/ncea\/isa\/recordisplay.cfm?deid=218686."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.00108419","article-title":"Exposure measurement error in time-series studies of air pollution: Concepts and consequences","volume":"108","author":"Zeger","year":"2000","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1007\/s11869-011-0140-9","article-title":"Confounding and exposure measurement error in air pollution epidemiology","volume":"5","author":"Sheppard","year":"2012","journal-title":"Air Qual. Atmos. Health"},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"National Research Council (2012). Exposure Science in the 21st Century: A Vision and a Strategy, The National Academies Press."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"National Research Council (1998). Research Priorities for Airborne Particulate Matter: I. Immediate Priorities and a Long-Range Research Portfolio, The National Academies Press."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (2016). Health Risks of Indoor Exposure to Particulate Matter: Workshop Summary, The National Academies Press."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (2017). Using 21st Century Science to Improve Risk-Related Evaluations, The National Academies Press."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14184","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.5b02765","article-title":"Air Pollution Exposure Model for Individuals (EMI) in Health Studies: Evaluation for Ambient PM2.5 in Central North Carolina","volume":"49","author":"Breen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"807","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2018.01.139","article-title":"Modeling Individual-level Exposures to Ambient PM2.5 for the Diabetes and the Environment Panel Study (DEPS)","volume":"626","author":"Breen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Breen, M.S., Seppanen, C., Isakov, V., Arunachalam, S., Breen, M., Samet, J., and Tong, H. (2019). Development of TracMyAir smartphone application for modeling exposures to ambient PM2.5 and ozone. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph16183468"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9349","DOI":"10.1021\/es101800k","article-title":"Predicting residential air exchange rates from questionnaires and meteorology: Model evaluation in central North Carolina","volume":"44","author":"Breen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11481","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph111111481","article-title":"Modeling spatial and temporal variability of residential air exchange rates for the Near-Road Exposures and Effects of Urban Air Pollutants Study (NEXUS)","volume":"11","author":"Breen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1186\/s12940-017-0335-0","article-title":"Ozone exposure is associated with acute changes in inflammation, fibrinolysis, and endothelial cell function in coronary artery disease patients","volume":"16","author":"Mirowsky","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"905","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2015.06.139","article-title":"A modeling framework for characterizing near-road air pollutant concentration at community scales","volume":"538","author":"Chang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"412","DOI":"10.1038\/jes.2014.13","article-title":"GPS-based microenvironment tracker (MicroTrac) model to estimate time-location of individuals for air pollution exposure assessments: Model evaluation in central North Carolina","volume":"24","author":"Breen","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Exp. Sci. Environ. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"748","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2013.05.074","article-title":"R-LINE: A Line Source Dispersion Model for Near-Surface Releases","volume":"77","author":"Snyder","year":"2013","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10518","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph111010518","article-title":"A method for estimating urban background concentrations in support of hybrid air pollution modeling for environmental health studies","volume":"11","author":"Arunachalam","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.3155\/1047-3289.58.3.451","article-title":"Resolving local-scale emissions for modeling air quality near roadways","volume":"58","author":"Cook","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Air Waste Manag. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12739","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph111212739","article-title":"Creating Locally-Resolved Mobile-Source Emissions Inputs for Air Quality Modeling in Support of an Exposure Study in Detroit, Michigan","volume":"11","author":"Snyder","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"U.S. EPA (2019, November 25). 2011 National Emissions Inventory (NEI) Data, Available online: https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/air-emissions-inventories\/2011-national-emissions-inventory-nei-data."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"U.S. EPA (2019, November 25). Air Quality System (AQS) User\u2019s Guide, Available online: https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/aqs\/aqs-user-guide."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s004770050029","article-title":"Modern geostatistics: Computational BME analysis in the light of uncertain physical knowledge\u2013the Equus Beds study","volume":"13","author":"Serre","year":"1999","journal-title":"Stoch. Environ. Res. Risk Assess."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5105","DOI":"10.1021\/es048226f","article-title":"PM2.5 of ambient origin: Estimates and exposure errors relevant to PM epidemiology","volume":"39","author":"Meng","year":"2005","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2120","DOI":"10.1021\/es00061a021","article-title":"Indoor Chemistry Involving O-3, No, and No2 as Evidenced by 14 Months of Measurements at a Site in Southern California","volume":"28","author":"Weschler","year":"1994","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1216","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.1307772","article-title":"An empirical assessment of exposure measurement error and effect attenuation in bipollutant epidemiologic models","volume":"122","author":"Dionisio","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.1038\/jes.2013.30","article-title":"A review of air exchange rate models for air pollution exposure assessments","volume":"24","author":"Breen","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Expo. Sci. Environ. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"470","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.jea.7500188","article-title":"A population exposure model for particulate matter: Case study results for PM2.5 in Philadelphia, PA","volume":"11","author":"Burke","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Expo. Anal. Environ. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"312","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.jes.7500601","article-title":"Air change rates of motor vehicles and in-vehicle pollutant concentrations from secondhand smoke","volume":"18","author":"Ott","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Expo. Anal. Environ. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Colley, R.C., Garriguet, D., Janssen, I., Craig, C.L., Clarke, J., and Tremblay, M.S. (2011). Physical Activity of Canadian Adults: Accelerometer Results from the 2007 to 2009 Canadian Health Measures Survey, Statistics Canada. Available online: https:\/\/www150.statcan.gc.ca\/n1\/pub\/82-003-x\/2011001\/article\/11396-eng.pdf.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yspm.2011.03.006"},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"U.S. EPA (2019, November 25). Metabolically Derived Human Ventilation Rates: A Revised Approach Based upon Oxygen Consumption Rates, Available online: https:\/\/cfpub.epa.gov\/ncea\/risk\/recordisplay.cfm?deid=202543."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"863","DOI":"10.1001\/archinte.1916.00080130010002","article-title":"A formula to estimate the approximate surface area if height and weight be known","volume":"17","author":"DuBois","year":"1916","journal-title":"Arch. Int. Med."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"680","DOI":"10.1097\/EDE.0b013e3182254cc6","article-title":"Does more accurate exposure prediction necessarily improve health effect estimates?","volume":"22","author":"Szpiro","year":"2011","journal-title":"Epidemiology"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"501","DOI":"10.1002\/env.2233","article-title":"Measurement error in two-stage analyses, with application to air pollution epidemiology","volume":"24","author":"Szpiro","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environmetrics"},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"U.S. EPA (2019, November 25). Total Risk Integrated Methodology (TRIM) Air Pollutants Exposure Model Documentation (TRIM.Expo\/APEX, Version 4.5), Available online: https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/fera\/total-risk-integrated-methodology-trim-air-pollutants-exposure-model-documentation-trimexpo."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"U.S. EPA (2019, November 25). Total Risk Integrated Methodology (TRIM) Air Pollutants Exposure Model Documentation (TRIM.Expo\/APEX, Version 4.5) Volume II, Technical Support Document, Available online: https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/sites\/production\/files\/2017-07\/documents\/apex45_usersguide_vol2_aug2012_0_1.pdf."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"840","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.7651","article-title":"Personalized exposure assessment: Promising approaches for human environmental health research","volume":"113","author":"Weis","year":"2005","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"606","DOI":"10.1038\/jes.2013.32","article-title":"Spatiotemporally resolved air exchange rate as a modifier of acute air pollution-related morbidity in Atlanta","volume":"23","author":"Sarnat","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Expo. Sci. Environ. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"696","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(16)00378-0","article-title":"Association between air pollution and coronary artery calcification within six metropolitan areas in the USA (the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis and Air Pollution): A longitudinal cohort study","volume":"388","author":"Kaufman","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.7511","article-title":"Pulmonary effects of indoor- and outdoor-generated particles in children with asthma","volume":"13","author":"Koenig","year":"2005","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1167","DOI":"10.1080\/10473289.2000.10464164","article-title":"Estimating separately personal exposure to ambient and nonambient particulate matter for epidemiology and risk assessment: Why and how","volume":"50","author":"Wilson","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Air Waste Manag. Assoc."}],"container-title":["Atmosphere"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4433\/11\/1\/65\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]],"date-time":"2025-10-13T13:28:42Z","timestamp":1760362122000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4433\/11\/1\/65"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,3]]},"references-count":43,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,1]]}},"alternative-id":["atmos11010065"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/atmos11010065","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-4433"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-4433","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,3]]}}}