{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,19]],"date-time":"2026-09-19T13:44:30Z","timestamp":1789825470191,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,15]],"date-time":"2021-12-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1639526400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Audiology Research"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Objects: This study aimed to evaluate the Executive Function (EF) domains in a group of profoundly deaf children treated with cochlear implant (CI) in comparison to normal hearing (NH) children. The secondary aim was to evaluate the influence exerted by the age at cochlear implant activation on EFs. Materials and Methods: 32 children were enrolled into two groups: group A of 17 CI users with a mean age of 8.78 years and group B of 15 NH subjects with a mean age of 7.99 years (SD + 2.3). All subjects were tested using the following tests: the subtests for working memory of the neuropsychological evaluation battery for the developmental age (Batteria di valutazione neuropsicologica per l\u2019et\u00e0 evolutive), inhibition and control of the impulsive response\u2014CAF, and the tower of London test. Results: No children with CIs scored within the normal range in the tests administered for the evaluation of EF domains. The same scores were significantly lower when compared with scores obtained by NH children. Children with younger age at CI activation showed better executive performances in planning, working memory (backward digit span), and cognitive flexibility (categorical fluency). Conclusion: The results of this study highlight that cochlear implantation plays a role in improving hearing and consequently influences the development of EFs in deaf children.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/audiolres11040063","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,15]],"date-time":"2021-12-15T09:02:19Z","timestamp":1639558939000},"page":"706-717","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["Executive Functions and Deafness: Results in a Group of Cochlear Implanted Children"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3454-1679","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrea","family":"De Giacomo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Child Neuropsychiatry Unit, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Neurosciences and Sense Organs, University of Bari, 70125 Bari, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5958-8086","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alessandra","family":"Murri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ENT Clinic, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Neurosciences and Sense Organs, University of Bari, 70125 Bari, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7541-0616","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emilia","family":"Matera","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Child Neuropsychiatry Unit, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Neurosciences and Sense Organs, University of Bari, 70125 Bari, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Francesco","family":"Pompamea","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Child Neuropsychiatry Unit, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Neurosciences and Sense Organs, University of Bari, 70125 Bari, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Francesco","family":"Craig","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Child Neuropsychiatry Unit, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Neurosciences and Sense Organs, University of Bari, 70125 Bari, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Francesca","family":"Giagnotti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ENT Clinic, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Neurosciences and Sense Organs, University of Bari, 70125 Bari, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Roberto","family":"Bartoli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ENT Clinic, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Neurosciences and Sense Organs, University of Bari, 70125 Bari, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6214-2336","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nicola","family":"Quaranta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ENT Clinic, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Neurosciences and Sense Organs, University of Bari, 70125 Bari, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2S","DOI":"10.1097\/AUD.0b013e3182014c53","article-title":"Long-term outcomes of cochlear implantation in early childhood: Sample characteristics and data collection methods","volume":"32","author":"Geers","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ear Hear."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1076","DOI":"10.1097\/MAO.0b013e31818c33cf","article-title":"Foreign body or hypersensitivity granuloma of the inner ear after cochlear implantation: One possible cause of a soft failure?","volume":"29","author":"Nadol","year":"2008","journal-title":"Otol. Neurotol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"902","DOI":"10.1093\/jpepsy\/jst034","article-title":"Executive functioning skills in long-term users of cochlear implants: A case control study","volume":"38","author":"Kronenberger","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2011.09.057","article-title":"Cortical thickness analysis and optimized voxel-based morphometry in children and adolescents with prelingually profound sensorineural hearing loss","volume":"1430","author":"Li","year":"2012","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-8721.2009.01651.x","article-title":"The importance of sound for cognitive sequencing abilities the auditory scaffolding hypothesis","volume":"18","author":"Conway","year":"2009","journal-title":"Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bandc.2008.03.003","article-title":"On the evolutionary origins of executive functions","volume":"68","author":"Ardila","year":"2008","journal-title":"Brain Cogn."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pisoni, D.B., Conway, C.M., Kronenberger, W., Henning, S., and Anaya, E. (2010). Executive function and cognitive control in deaf children with cochlear implants. Oxford Handbook of Deaf Studies, Language and Education, Oxford University Press. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordhb\/9780195390032.013.0029"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marschark, M., and Hauser, P. (2008). Efficacy and effectiveness of cochlear implants in deaf children. Deaf Cognition: Foundations and Outcomes, Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780195368673.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Barkley, R.A. (1997). ADHD and the Nature of Self Control, Guilford."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Bisiacchi, S.P., Cendron, M., Gugliotta, M., Tressoldi, P.E., and Vio, C. (2005). BVN 5-11\u2014Batteria di Valutazione Neuropsicologica per l\u2019Et\u00e0 Evolutive, Edizioni Centro Studi Erickson."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Gugliotta, M., Bisiacchi, P.S., Cendron, M., Tressoldi, P.E., and Vio, C. (2009). BVN 12-18\u2014Batteria di Valutazione Neuropsicologica per l\u2019Adolescenza, Edizioni Centro Studi Erickson."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Marzocchi, G.M., and Re Am Cornoldi, C. (2010). BIA, Batteria Italiana per l\u2019ADHD per la Valutazione dei Bambini con Deficit D\u2019Attenzione Iperattivit\u00e0, Edizioni Erickson."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Vio, C., Sannio Fancello, G., and Cianchetti, C. (2006). Test TOL\u2014Torre di Londra (Test di Valutazione Delle Funzioni Esecutive), Edizioni Centro Studi Erickson."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Gilmour, L. (2010). The Inter-Rater Reliability of Categories of Auditory Performance-II (CAP)-II. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Institute of Sound and Vibration Research, University of Southampton]."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Stella, G., Pizzoli, C., and Tressoldi, P. (2000). Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test. Italian Adaptation, Omega Edizioni."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dunn, L.M. (1997). PPVT-III: Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, American Guide Service. [3rd ed.].","DOI":"10.1037\/t15145-000"},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Bishop, D.V.M., Suraniti, S., Ferri, R., and Neri, V. (2003). Test for Reception of Grammar\u2014Version 2, Pearson. Italian Adaptation, Giunti OS Edition."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"362","DOI":"10.1093\/deafed\/enm067","article-title":"Executive function and language in deaf children","volume":"13","author":"Figueras","year":"2008","journal-title":"Deaf Stud. Deaf Educ."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"456","DOI":"10.1093\/deafed\/enu011","article-title":"Executive functioning and speech-language skills following long-term use of cochlear implants","volume":"19","author":"Kronenberger","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Deaf Stud. Deaf Educ."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1093\/deafed\/enw057","article-title":"Social Maturity and Executive Function Among Deaf Learners","volume":"22","author":"Marschark","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Deaf Stud. Deaf Educ."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"947","DOI":"10.1044\/2019_AJA-19-0030","article-title":"Effects of Bimodal and Bilateral Cochlear Implant Use on a Nonauditory Working Memory Task: Reading Span Tests over 2 Years Following Cochlear Implantation","volume":"28","author":"Macpherson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am. J. Audiol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2808","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2019.02808","article-title":"Executive Functions, Pragmatic Skills, and Mental Health in Children with Congenital Cytomegalovirus (CMV) Infection with Cochlear Implants: A Pilot Study","volume":"10","author":"Anmyr","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1097\/AUD.0000000000000629","article-title":"Brent Spehar Effects of Early Auditory Deprivation on Working Memory and Reasoning Abilities in Verbal and Visuospatial Domains for Pediatric Cochlear Implant Recipients","volume":"40","author":"Davidson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ear Hear."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e400","DOI":"10.1111\/cdev.13226","article-title":"Expressive Vocabulary Predicts Nonverbal Executive Function: A 2-year Longitudinal Study of Deaf and Hearing Children","volume":"91","author":"Jones","year":"2020","journal-title":"Child Dev."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"608","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaoto.2014.757","article-title":"Neurocognitive risk in children with cochlear implants","volume":"140","author":"Kronenberger","year":"2014","journal-title":"JAMA Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-psych-113011-143750","article-title":"Executive functions","volume":"64","author":"Diamond","year":"2013","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2037","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2006.02.006","article-title":"Development of cognitive control and executive functions from 4\u201313 years: Evidence from manipulations of memory, inhibition, and task switching","volume":"44","author":"Davidson","year":"2006","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.134.1.31","article-title":"Executive function in preschoolers: A review using an integrative framework","volume":"134","author":"Garon","year":"2008","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"797","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/12.8.797","article-title":"Hearing after congenital deafness: Central auditory plasticity and sensory deprivation","volume":"12","author":"Kral","year":"2002","journal-title":"Cereb. Cortex"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heares.2004.12.010","article-title":"The influence of a sensitive period on central auditory development in children with unilateral and bilateral cochlear implants","volume":"203","author":"Sharma","year":"2005","journal-title":"Hear. Res."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1080\/14670100.2019.1565077","article-title":"Early cochlear implantation: Verbal working memory, vocabulary, speech intelligibility and participant variables","volume":"20","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cochlear Implants Int."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1689","DOI":"10.1111\/cdev.12659","article-title":"Nonverbal Executive Function is Mediated by Language: A Study of Deaf and Hearing Children","volume":"88","author":"Botting","year":"2017","journal-title":"Child Dev."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1970","DOI":"10.1044\/2018_JSLHR-L-17-0281","article-title":"Executive Function in Deaf Children: Auditory Access and Language Access","volume":"61","author":"Hall","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Kronenberger, W.G., Pisoni, D.B., Henning, S.C., Colson, B.G., and Nguyen, A. (2012, January 26\u201328). Parent-reports of executive functioning skills in long-term cochlear implant users. Proceedings of the Midwest Regional Conference on Child Health Psychology, Milwaukee, WI, USA."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2693","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1010076108","article-title":"A gradient of childhood self-control predicts health, wealth, and public safety","volume":"108","author":"Moffitt","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1340","DOI":"10.1002\/aur.1632","article-title":"Discourse comprehension in autism spectrum disorder: Effects of working memory load and common ground","volume":"9","author":"Schuh","year":"2016","journal-title":"Autism. Res."}],"container-title":["Audiology Research"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2039-4349\/11\/4\/63\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:48:19Z","timestamp":1760168899000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2039-4349\/11\/4\/63"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,15]]},"references-count":36,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,12]]}},"alternative-id":["audiolres11040063"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/audiolres11040063","relation":{},"ISSN":["2039-4349"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2039-4349","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,15]]}}}