{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]],"date-time":"2026-10-02T13:31:05Z","timestamp":1790947865702,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":54,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,11]],"date-time":"2025-11-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1762819200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Audiology Research"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Brainstem-related dysphagia represents a complex and severe form of neurogenic dysphagia (ND) arising from lesions that disrupt the central pattern generator (CPG) for swallowing located in the medulla oblongata. Methods: This paper explores the physiological basis of swallowing and its disruption in various brainstem pathologies. Results: The clinical presentation and electrophysiological evaluation of dysphagia are discussed, with a focus on volitional and spontaneous swallowing (SS) and the use of electromyography (EMG)-based assessment techniques. Conclusions: Finally, therapeutic strategies are reviewed, including conventional rehabilitative methods, neuromuscular electrical stimulation, non-invasive brain stimulation, and invasive procedures such as neurobotulinum toxin-A (BoNT-A) injections, balloon dilation, and CP myotomy.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/audiolres15060153","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,11]],"date-time":"2025-11-11T10:56:27Z","timestamp":1762858587000},"page":"153","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Pathophysiology and Etiology of Brainstem-Related Dysphagia"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Lucia","family":"D\u2019Alatri","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Otorhinolaryngology, A. Gemelli University Hospital Foundation IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Head, Neck and Sensory Organs, Catholic University of Sacred Heart, 00168 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0751-0882","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria Raffaella","family":"Marchese","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Otorhinolaryngology, A. Gemelli University Hospital Foundation IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Angelo","family":"Tizio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Head, Neck and Sensory Organs, Catholic University of Sacred Heart, 00168 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jacopo","family":"Galli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Otorhinolaryngology, A. Gemelli University Hospital Foundation IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Head, Neck and Sensory Organs, Catholic University of Sacred Heart, 00168 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1097\/00002060-200003000-00010","article-title":"Dysphagia in Patients with Brainstem Stroke: Incidence and Outcome","volume":"79","author":"Meng","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am. J. Phys. Med. 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