{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]],"date-time":"2026-10-15T18:01:35Z","timestamp":1792087295721,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":88,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,1]],"date-time":"2023-02-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1675209600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Bioengineering"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Neuromodulation, specifically spinal cord stimulation (SCS), has become a staple of chronic pain management for various conditions including failed back syndrome, chronic regional pain syndrome, refractory radiculopathy, and chronic post operative pain. Since its conceptualization, it has undergone several advances to increase safety and convenience for patients and implanting physicians. Current research and efforts are aimed towards novel programming modalities and modifications of existing hardware. Here we review the recent advances and future directions in spinal cord stimulation including a brief review of the history of SCS, SCS waveforms, new materials for SCS electrodes (including artificial skins, new materials, and injectable electrodes), closed loop systems, and neurorestorative devices.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bioengineering10020185","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,1]],"date-time":"2023-02-01T02:52:02Z","timestamp":1675219922000},"page":"185","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":68,"title":["Advances in Spinal Cord Stimulation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2848-6255","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christopher M.","family":"Lam","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, University of Kansas Health System, Kansas City, KS 66160, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Usman","family":"Latif","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, University of Kansas Health System, Kansas City, KS 66160, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4610-2099","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrew","family":"Sack","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, University of Kansas Health System, Kansas City, KS 66160, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5708-4872","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Susheel","family":"Govindan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, University of Kansas Health System, Kansas City, KS 66160, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Miles","family":"Sanderson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, University of Kansas Health System, Kansas City, KS 66160, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dan T.","family":"Vu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, University of Kansas Health System, Kansas City, KS 66160, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8420-2918","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gabriella","family":"Smith","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Medicine, University of Kansas, Kansas City, KS 66160, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8867-2140","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dawood","family":"Sayed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, University of Kansas Health System, Kansas City, KS 66160, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Talal","family":"Khan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, University of Kansas Health System, Kansas City, KS 66160, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1097\/j.pain.0000000000001384","article-title":"Chronic pain as a symptom or a disease: The IASP Classification of Chronic Pain for the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11)","volume":"160","author":"Treede","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pain"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e328","DOI":"10.1097\/j.pain.0000000000002291","article-title":"Prevalence of chronic pain among adults in the United States","volume":"163","author":"Yong","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pain"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S3","DOI":"10.36076\/ppj.2017.s92","article-title":"Responsible, Safe, and Effective Prescription of Opioids for Chronic Non-Cancer Pain: American Society of Interventional Pain Physicians (ASIPP) Guidelines","volume":"20","author":"Manchikanti","year":"2017","journal-title":"Pain Physician"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E3","DOI":"10.3171\/foc.2006.21.6.6","article-title":"Spinal cord stimulation: Indications and outcomes","volume":"21","author":"Lee","year":"2006","journal-title":"Neurosurg. Focus"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"687","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2021.0538","article-title":"Effect of High-frequency (10-kHz) Spinal Cord Stimulation in Patients with Painful Diabetic Neuropathy: A Randomized Clinical Trial","volume":"78","author":"Petersen","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"775","DOI":"10.1111\/anae.15036","article-title":"10 kHz spinal cord stimulation for the treatment of non-surgical refractory back pain: Subanalysis of pooled data from two prospective studies","volume":"75","author":"Kapural","year":"2020","journal-title":"Anaesthesia"},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"11","article-title":"Evolution of spinal cord surgery for pain","volume":"53","author":"Gildenberg","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin. Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.3344\/kjp.2020.33.2.97","article-title":"From the torpedo fish to the spinal cord stimulator","volume":"33","author":"Nahm","year":"2020","journal-title":"Korean J. Pain"},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Teoli, D., and An, J. (2022). Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation, StatPearls."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S7","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1526-4637.2006.00118.x","article-title":"History of Electrical Neuromodulation for Chronic Pain","volume":"7","author":"Gildenberg","year":"2006","journal-title":"Pain Med."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1111\/ner.12564","article-title":"The Neurostimulation Appropriateness Consensus Committee (NACC) Safety Guidelines for the Reduction of Severe Neurological Injury","volume":"20","author":"Deer","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neuromodulation"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"971","DOI":"10.1126\/science.150.3699.971","article-title":"Pain mechanisms: A new theory","volume":"150","author":"Melzack","year":"1965","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1016\/S0079-6123(08)60619-6","article-title":"Presynaptic Control of Impulses at the First Central Synapse in the Cutaneous Pathway","volume":"12","author":"Wall","year":"1964","journal-title":"Prog. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1213\/00000539-196707000-00025","article-title":"Electrical inhibition of pain by stimulation of the dorsal columns: Preliminary clinical report","volume":"46","author":"Shealy","year":"1967","journal-title":"Anesth. Analg."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1186\/s42234-019-0023-1","article-title":"Spinal cord stimulation in chronic pain: Evidence and theory for mechanisms of action","volume":"5","author":"Caylor","year":"2019","journal-title":"Bioelectron. Med."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, K., Lee, D., Kagan, Z., Wang, D., and Bradley, K. (2021). Differential Modulation of Dorsal Horn Neurons by Various Spinal Cord Stimulation Strategies. Biomedicines, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines9050568"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S13","DOI":"10.1093\/pm\/pnz073","article-title":"Mechanism of Action in Burst Spinal Cord Stimulation: Review and Recent Advances","volume":"20","author":"Chakravarthy","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pain Med."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S53","DOI":"10.1097\/BRS.0000000000002179","article-title":"Spinal Cord Stimulation in Chronic Pain: Mode of Action","volume":"42","author":"Vallejo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Spine"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"440","DOI":"10.3171\/jns.1975.43.4.0440","article-title":"Percutaneous trial of stimulation for patient selection for implantable stimulating devices","volume":"43","author":"Erickson","year":"1975","journal-title":"J. Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.3171\/jns.1976.45.4.0459","article-title":"Percutaneous epidural dorsal column stimulation. Technical note","volume":"45","author":"Zumpano","year":"1976","journal-title":"J. Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"184","article-title":"Chronic Dorsal Column Stimulation via Percutaneously Inserted Epidural Electrodes. Preliminary results in 31 patients","volume":"40","author":"North","year":"1977","journal-title":"Appl. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"340","DOI":"10.1111\/ner.12582","article-title":"Specialty-Based Variations in Spinal Cord Stimulation Success Rates for Treatment of Chronic Pain","volume":"20","author":"Hussaini","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neuromodulation"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/0304-3959(91)90125-H","article-title":"Spinal cord stimulation for chronic, intractable pain: Superiority of \u201cmulti-channel\u201d devices","volume":"44","author":"North","year":"1991","journal-title":"Pain"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"North, R.B., Kidd, D., Zahurak, M., James, C., and Long, D. (1993). Spinal cord stimulation for chronic, intractable pain: Experience over two decades. Neurosurgery, 32.","DOI":"10.1097\/00006123-199303000-00008"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.3171\/jns.1972.37.2.0242","article-title":"Preliminary percutaneous dorsal column stimulation prior to permanent implantation. Technical note","volume":"37","author":"Hosobuchi","year":"1972","journal-title":"J. Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"851","DOI":"10.1097\/ALN.0000000000000774","article-title":"Novel 10-kHz High-frequency Therapy (HF10 Therapy) Is Superior to Traditional Low-frequency Spinal Cord Stimulation for the Treatment of Chronic Back and Leg Pain: The SENZA-RCT Randomized Controlled Trial","volume":"123","author":"Kapural","year":"2015","journal-title":"Anesthesiology"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2019.12.031","article-title":"Low-intensity, Kilohertz Frequency Spinal Cord Stimulation Differently Affects Excitatory and Inhibitory Neurons in the Rodent Superficial Dorsal Horn","volume":"428","author":"Lee","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136705","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2022.136705","article-title":"Simultaneous 10 kHz and 40 Hz spinal cord stimulation increases dorsal horn inhibitory interneuron activity","volume":"782","author":"Lee","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1586\/17434440.2015.985652","article-title":"Mimicking the brain: Evaluation of St Jude Medical\u2019s Prodigy Chronic Pain System with Burst Technology","volume":"12","author":"Vanneste","year":"2015","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Med. Devices"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1080\/17434440.2020.1736560","article-title":"All bursts are equal, but some are more equal (to burst firing): BurstDR stimulation versus Boston burst stimulation","volume":"17","author":"Vancamp","year":"2020","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Med. Devices"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1111\/ner.12698","article-title":"Success Using Neuromodulation with BURST (SUNBURST) Study: Results from a Prospective, Randomized Controlled Trial Using a Novel Burst Waveform","volume":"21","author":"Deer","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neuromodulation"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S31","DOI":"10.1093\/pm\/pnz003","article-title":"Burst Spinal Cord Stimulation: A Clinical Review","volume":"20","author":"Kirketeig","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pain Med."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1744806921999013","DOI":"10.1177\/1744806921999013","article-title":"Modulation of microglial activation states by spinal cord stimulation in an animal model of neuropathic pain: Comparing high rate, low rate, and differential target multiplexed programming","volume":"17","author":"Smith","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mol. Pain"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1744806920918057","DOI":"10.1177\/1744806920918057","article-title":"Modulation of neuroglial interactions using differential target multiplexed spinal cord stimulation in an animal model of neuropathic pain","volume":"16","author":"Vallejo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mol. Pain"},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Vallejo, R. (2022, October 19). Method and Apparatus for Multi Modal or Multiplexed Electrical Modulation of Pain. (U.S. Patent No. US 2018\/0243563). U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. Available online: https:\/\/patentimages.storage.googleapis.com\/82\/75\/c2\/3b28dc6e0fde62\/US20180243563A1.pdf."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"912","DOI":"10.1111\/papr.13066","article-title":"Twelve-Month results from multicenter, open-label, randomized controlled clinical trial comparing differential target multiplexed spinal cord stimulation and traditional spinal cord stimulation in subjects with chronic intractable back pain and leg pain","volume":"21","author":"Fishman","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pain Pract."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"709","DOI":"10.1111\/papr.12126","article-title":"Impact of Wait times on Spinal Cord Stimulation Therapy Outcomes","volume":"14","author":"Kumar","year":"2014","journal-title":"Pain Pract."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"382","DOI":"10.1038\/s41587-019-0079-1","article-title":"Toward a new generation of smart skins","volume":"37","author":"Someya","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"280","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actbio.2021.06.018","article-title":"Bio-inspired flexible electronics for smart E-skin","volume":"139","author":"Nie","year":"2022","journal-title":"Acta Biomater."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1601916","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.201601916","article-title":"A Mussel-Inspired Conductive, Self-Adhesive, and Self-Healable Tough Hydrogel as Cell Stimulators and Implantable Bioelectronics","volume":"13","author":"Han","year":"2017","journal-title":"Small"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"458","DOI":"10.1038\/nature12314","article-title":"An ultra-lightweight design for imperceptible plastic electronics","volume":"499","author":"Kaltenbrunner","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1038\/nature25494","article-title":"Skin electronics from scalable fabrication of an intrinsically stretchable transistor array","volume":"555","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"907","DOI":"10.1038\/nnano.2017.125","article-title":"Inflammation-free, gas-permeable, lightweight, stretchable on-skin electronics with nanomeshes","volume":"12","author":"Miyamoto","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Nanotechnol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coelec.2017.07.003","article-title":"Implantable electrodes","volume":"3","author":"Jalili","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Electrochem."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1097\/00002508-200006000-00012","article-title":"Allergic Reaction to Spinal Cord Stimulator","volume":"16","author":"Ochani","year":"2000","journal-title":"Clin. J. Pain"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"845","DOI":"10.1111\/papr.12682","article-title":"The Long-Term Durability of Multilumen Concentric Percutaneous Spinal Cord Stimulator Leads","volume":"18","author":"Simopoulos","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pain Pract."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"020201","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2560\/11\/2\/020201","article-title":"Time to address the problems at the neural interface","volume":"11","author":"Durand","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Neural Eng."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Majid, A. (2017). Electroceuticals: Advances in Electrostimulation Therapies, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-28612-9"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luo, Y., Sun, S., and Xie, S. (2021, January 10\u201312). Spinal cord stimulators: Implanted electrode materials, power transfer mechanism, and their applications. Proceedings of the International Conference on Optoelectronic Materials and Devices (ICOD 2021), Guangzhou, China.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.2628693"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1612","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2005.851503","article-title":"In Vitro Comparison of the Charge-Injection Limits of Activated Iridium Oxide (AIROF) and Platinum-Iridium Microelectrodes","volume":"52","author":"Cogan","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e17","DOI":"10.1002\/term.383","article-title":"Application of conductive polymers, scaffolds and electrical stimulation for nerve tissue engineering","volume":"5","author":"Prabhakaran","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Tissue Eng. Regen. Med."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"657","DOI":"10.1111\/ner.12285","article-title":"Improved Poly(3,4-Ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT) for Neural Stimulation","volume":"18","author":"Mandal","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neuromodulation"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wallace, G.G., Moulton, S.E., Kapsa, R.M.I., and Higgins, M.J. (2012). Organic Bionics, Wiley-VCH.","DOI":"10.1002\/9783527646029"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2015.2445713","article-title":"Chronic In Vivo Evaluation of PEDOT\/CNT for Stable Neural Recordings","volume":"63","author":"Kozai","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2100061","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.202100061","article-title":"PEDOT:PSS-Based Bioelectronic Devices for Recording and Modulation of Electrophysiological and Biochemical Cell Signals","volume":"10","author":"Liang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Adv. Healthc. Mater."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1872","DOI":"10.1149\/1.1393450","article-title":"Electrochemical Characterization of Poly(3,4-ethylene dioxythiophene) Based Conducting Hydrogel Networks","volume":"147","author":"Ghosh","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Electrochem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5551","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2011.04.051","article-title":"Highly stable carbon nanotube doped poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) for chronic neural stimulation","volume":"32","author":"Luo","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"016008","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2560\/12\/1\/016008","article-title":"Evaluation of poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)\/carbon nanotube neural electrode coatings for stimulation in the dorsal root ganglion","volume":"12","author":"Kolarcik","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Neural Eng."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2016.00087","article-title":"Boron-Doped Nanocrystalline Diamond Electrodes for Neural Interfaces: In vivo Biocompatibility Evaluation","volume":"10","author":"Alcaide","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2046","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2008.10.017","article-title":"A diamond-based biosensor for the recording of neuronal activity","volume":"24","author":"Ariano","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2015.02.021","article-title":"3D-nanostructured boron-doped diamond for microelectrode array neural interfacing","volume":"53","author":"Piret","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1900892","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.201900892","article-title":"An Injectable Neural Stimulation Electrode Made from an In-Body Curing Polymer\/Metal Composite","volume":"8","author":"Trevathan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Adv. Healthc. Mater."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"036002","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2560\/12\/3\/036002","article-title":"Compliant intracortical implants reduce strains and strain rates in brain tissue in vivo","volume":"12","author":"Sridharan","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Neural Eng."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sohal, H.S., Clowry, G.J., Jackson, A., O\u2019Neill, A., and Baker, S.N. (2016). Mechanical Flexibility Reduces the Foreign Body Response to Long-Term Implanted Microelectrodes in Rabbit Cortex. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1101\/058982"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"056068","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2552\/ac2ffb","article-title":"Stimulation of the dorsal root ganglion using an Injectrode\u00ae","volume":"18","author":"Dalrymple","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Neural Eng."},{"key":"ref_66","first-page":"575","article-title":"Exposure-Related Health Effects of Silver and Silver Compounds: A Review","volume":"49","author":"Drake","year":"2005","journal-title":"Ann. Occup. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pain.2011.11.023","article-title":"Compound action potentials recorded in the human spinal cord during neurostimulation for pain relief","volume":"153","author":"Parker","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pain"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/0304-3959(94)90047-7","article-title":"Perception threshold and electrode position for spinal cord stimulation","volume":"59","author":"He","year":"1994","journal-title":"Pain"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3909","DOI":"10.2147\/JPR.S344568","article-title":"A New Direction for Closed-Loop Spinal Cord Stimulation: Combining Contemporary Therapy Paradigms with Evoked Compound Action Potential Sensing","volume":"14","author":"Vallejo","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Pain Res."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"680","DOI":"10.1111\/papr.13008","article-title":"ECAP-Controlled Closed-Loop Spinal Cord Stimulation Efficacy and Opioid Reduction Over 24-Months: Final Results of the Prospective, Multicenter, Open-Label Avalon Study","volume":"21","author":"Brooker","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pain Pract."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1111\/ner.12932","article-title":"Multicenter, Randomized, Double-Blind Study Protocol Using Human Spinal Cord Recording Comparing Safety, Efficacy, and Neurophysiological Responses Between Patients Being Treated with Evoked Compound Action Potential\u2013Controlled Closed-Loop Spinal Cord Stimulation or Open-Loop Spinal Cord Stimulation (the Evoke Study)","volume":"22","author":"Levy","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neuromodulation Technol. Neural Interface"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(19)30414-4","article-title":"Long-term safety and efficacy of closed-loop spinal cord stimulation to treat chronic back and leg pain (Evoke): A double-blind, randomised, controlled trial","volume":"19","author":"Mekhail","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1007\/s11910-019-0984-1","article-title":"Modern Medical Management of Spinal Cord Injury","volume":"19","author":"Karsy","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Neurol. Neurosci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"National Spinal Cord Injury Statistical Center (2022, October 19). Spinal Cord Injury. Facts and Figures at a Glance. Available online: https:\/\/www.nscisc.uab.edu\/Public\/Facts%20and%20Figures%202020.pdf."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmr.2013.10.007","article-title":"Suicide Mortality After Spinal Cord Injury in the United States: Injury Cohorts Analysis","volume":"95","author":"Cao","year":"2014","journal-title":"Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabilitation"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1079","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmr.2006.04.022","article-title":"Trends in Life Expectancy After Spinal Cord Injury","volume":"87","author":"Strauss","year":"2006","journal-title":"Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1159\/000382079","article-title":"Mortality and Longevity after a Spinal Cord Injury: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"44","author":"Chamberlain","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neuroepidemiology"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1186\/s12938-020-00773-4","article-title":"Functional electrical stimulation therapy for restoration of motor function after spinal cord injury and stroke: A review","volume":"19","author":"Popovic","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biomed. Eng. Online"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2020.00607","article-title":"A Comparison of FES and SCS for Neuroplastic Recovery After SCI: Historical Perspectives and Future Directions","volume":"11","author":"Duffell","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1038\/nature20118","article-title":"A brain\u2013spine interface alleviating gait deficits after spinal cord injury in primates","volume":"539","author":"Capogrosso","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1038\/nm.4025","article-title":"Spatiotemporal neuromodulation therapies engaging muscle synergies improve motor control after spinal cord injury","volume":"22","author":"Wenger","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255ra133","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.3008325","article-title":"Closed-loop neuromodulation of spinal sensorimotor circuits controls refined locomotion after complete spinal cord injury","volume":"6","author":"Wenger","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.1998.tb09062.x","article-title":"Evidence for a spinal central pattern generator in humans","volume":"860","author":"Dimitrijevic","year":"1998","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1677","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-018-0175-7","article-title":"Neuromodulation of lumbosacral spinal networks enables independent stepping after complete paraplegia","volume":"24","author":"Gill","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1244","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1803588","article-title":"Recovery of Over-Ground Walking after Chronic Motor Complete Spinal Cord Injury","volume":"379","author":"Angeli","year":"2018","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_86","unstructured":"Inc., O.M (2022, October 19). The Up-LIFT Study of Non-Invasive ARC Therapy for Spinal Cord Injury, Available online: https:\/\/ClinicalTrials.gov\/show\/NCT04697472."},{"key":"ref_87","unstructured":"Inc, O.M. (2022, October 19). ONWARD Reports Positive Topline Results from a Pivotal Study to Restore Arm and Hand Function in People with Spinal Cord Injury. Available online: https:\/\/ir.onwd.com\/static-files\/0449dc19-a02d-4a81-aa0d-04051672e52d."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-021-01663-5","article-title":"Activity-dependent spinal cord neuromodulation rapidly restores trunk and leg motor functions after complete paralysis","volume":"28","author":"Rowald","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Med."}],"container-title":["Bioengineering"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2306-5354\/10\/2\/185\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T18:20:44Z","timestamp":1760120444000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2306-5354\/10\/2\/185"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,1]]},"references-count":88,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2]]}},"alternative-id":["bioengineering10020185"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/bioengineering10020185","relation":{},"ISSN":["2306-5354"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2306-5354","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,1]]}}}